Lifespan Development

The definition of 'lifespan development' or 'lifespan psychology' is implicit in the term itself. Lifespan developmental psychology or lifespan psychology deals with the study of individual development from conception into old age. This definition implies the notion that some individual progresses through various developmental stages or phases throughout his or her lifetime. The theories that present the development of an individual in stages is known as stage theories.
In analyzing the stages of an individual's lifespan, many theories have been posited by a number of psychologists who have studied particular aspects of the lifespan. Some of these theorists are Jean Piaget, who posited the cognitive developmental theory. During the 20th century,

he was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology and posited that individuals progress through four stages of development in mental and reasoning capacities. There is also a psychosexual theory, posited by Sigmund Freud, the father of psychology. He believed that the individual progresses through five stages of sexual development, each of which has a relating psychological principle. Freud believed that if each stage of sexual development was handled well, the individual would evolve into a mature, well-adapted person. A few other theorists are Erik Erikson, who posited the psychosocial theory of development; Lawrence Kohlberg, who posited the theory of moral development; and James Fowler who posited the psycho spiritual theory of human development.
The study of Lifespan Development is of extreme relevance and importance to the Counselling and Consulting Psychologist. The theorists, through years of research, provide a sound basis for understanding the individual's progression through the lifespan. As can be seen from the preceding paragraph, various theorists pay attention to specific aspects of human development, for example, Erikson primarily studied the psychosocial development of the individual. In this way, they were able to spend much time in observation and preparation, thus making the theory reliable. The theories provide a guide as to the developmental stages and expectation of each stage across the lifespan. Therefore, being aware of each theory and its basic tenets will arm the psychologist and give him a bird's eye view into the functioning and capabilities of the client. The theory will assist the psychologist to easier detect what may be the client's presenting problems.
As with all theories, the theories of Lifespan Development should not be accepted as laws, but simply as guides to the developmental stages through which an individual may progress. The constant nature-nurture debate is ever present in the study and practice of Lifespan Psychology. The individual's nature, that is, his or her genetic make-up and biological predispositions; as well as nurture, which is the environment in which he or she exists, (and there can be several environments, such as school, home, church) contribute to the individual's development. Because of this, the theories cannot be taken as rigid and inflexible boundaries in the psychologist's practice.
Most infants show secure attachment, which means that they freely explore new environments, using the caregiver as a secure base.

They may or may not cry when the caregiver leaves the room, and later when she returns, the babies actively seek contact with her, stop crying quickly, and soon return to previous activities. Another group of infants, based on Ainsworth's test, displayed insecure/avoidant attachment. These infants do not cry when caregivers leave the room and react in much the same way to strangers as to their caregivers. They do not usually reestablish connection on her return. If contact is established, the infant usually leans or looks away. A third group of infants displays a pattern described as insecure/ambivalent attachment. These babies usually cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness. In the research, these infants often cling anxiously to the caregiver, cry loudly when she leaves, and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return. The final group of babies was described as having insecure/disorganized attachment. These babies were shown to be disorganized and disoriented. They may also appear dazed, confused and fearful.
Early attachment to a caregiver is important and relates to a child's social behavior in later development. In one study it was found that early secure attachment (occurring between 12 and 18 months) was linked with positive emotional health, high self-esteem, self-confidence and socially competent interactions with peers, teachers, and romantic partners through adolescence. According to Santrock (2008), "consistently positive parenting over a number of years is likely an important factor in connecting early attachment and the child's functioning later in

development".
Another theory which may be useful in assessing Erikson's psychosocial model. Erikson's theory is a cumulative stage theory. This means that successful completion of each stage is a prerequisite for completing the subsequent stages. Each stage is recognized as a psychological crisis which needs to be solved, with each of these crises having a positive and a negative outcome. A healthy resolution of each crisis, that is, where the outcome is positive, will lead to a mature, healthy, and emotional competent individual. For the purposes of responding to the case, I will focus only on the first and fifth stages.
Trust vs. mistrust is the first psychological crisis to be resolved by the individual and focuses on age zero to 1 year old. This first stage centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents as it depends on them, especially the mother for food, sustenance, and comfort. The infant's relative understanding of society comes from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the child is exposed to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. If this does not happen, and the caregivers fail to provide a secure environment, a sense of mistrust will result. Erikson believed the major developmental task in infancy to be learning whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust - that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust - that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly dangerous place. This early stage in development sets the pace for subsequent 'victories' in development across the lifespan. If Ana had learned trust
The fifth stage of Erikson's theory is identity vs. role confusion which spans the adolescence years - about 10 to 20 years of age. It is at this stage, according to Erikson, that adolescents are faced with the task of deciding who they are and where they are going in life. These questions become especially important as the adolescence years are reached because adolescents face an overwhelming number of choices.

Adolescents and young adults take more risks than any other age groups This risk-taking includes dangerous driving (e.g. texting), drug use, binge drinking, and risky sexual behavior. Despite educational efforts to provide teens with information about risky behavior, many adolescents continue to engage in risky behavior

A growing of body of brain research is providing answers to these questions. People often believe that teens engage in risky behavior because they are not very good at evaluating risk. But early research in this area demonstrated that adolescents are just as good as adults at evaluating risk across a broad range of risky behavior. So, teens know that the behaviors are risky, but they still engage in them.
First, during the adolescence period, there is an increased interest in peer relationships and susceptibility to peer influence increases during the early teen years and peaks at about age 14 Consistent with these readily observable changes in peer relationships, brain imaging studies have shown that several areas of the brain make adolescents more sensitive to the rewards of peer relationships than adults .This motivates teens to focus on their peers in decision-making situations that involve risky behavior.

Second, adolescents are more distressed than adults when excluded by peers. A brain region known as the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) might be important in helping people cope with negative evaluation from peers by reducing distress. Research shows that this brain region is used more heavily by adults when being socially excluded than by adolescents, when teens do use this area of the brain during peer exclusion, they report lower levels of distress
During the adolescent years, however, this brain region is still developing so adolescents may not be as effective at controlling distress during peer social exclusion. This likely contributes to engaging in risky behaviors to prevent being excluded by their peers.

Third, another area of the brain, the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), is responsible for mature self-regulation and develops gradually over the adolescence period (Albert, et al., 2013). In one study, early adolescents, late adolescents, and adults behaved similarly on a computerized driving task when they were by themselves (Gardner & Steinberg, 2005). However, when they were paired with two same-aged friends, clear differences emerged. Early adolescents were more likely to engage in risky driving when friends were present. Late adolescents were somewhat riskier in their driving when they were with friends. The presence of friends had no impact on adults’ driving.

Using the computerized driving task researchers found that, in contrast to adults, adolescents were more likely to engage in risky driving when they knew that their friends were observing them than when they were alone the area of the brain that was used by the adults, the PFC, helps with decision-making and self-regulation in tasks such as driving. In contrast, adolescents used areas of the brain that are more closely associated with rewards when completing the driving task. So, we have changes in the brain during early adolescence that make teens more focused on the rewards of peers and being included in peer activities. This increased focus on peers occurs during a time when the PFC is not yet ready to assist in mature self-regulation. These factors provide a “perfect storm” of opportunities for risky behavior.