Lemur Research Paper

Abstract:

Madagascar is considered the fourth largest island, with one of the world’s most diverse flora and fauna assemblages. This is due to the islands early split during the continental drift from Gondwana. The diverse, Malagasy forests are being destroyed from local deforestation, causing the flora and fauna to become endemic from the destruction and confinement done by human invasion. There are current conservation projects, however it is impossible to preserve all living species. Thus, priorities must be made. It is a necessity to preserve species that provide symbiotic relationships with a variety of neighboring species. The sympatric lemur species must be prioritized to conserve, for these species promote local seed-bearing flora

stability and prosperity. Not only this, many plant families and genera are exclusively eaten by one lemur species, portraying the dependency Research of day-to-day activity of many lemur species displays a limited g dispersal range of no more than 100m, thus promoting a small area for seed defecation. Other frugivorous species, varying from birds, bats, and primates do not promote efficient seed dispersal for Malagasy forestry. Flora of Madagascar needs fairly local seed dispersal; this locality of seed concentration is beneficial due to the confinement of the Malagasy biota from frequent, illegal deforestation. The flora of the Malagasy forests harbors thousands of species and can only be successfully conserved through the preservation of the lemur species. (227-word count)

Introduction:
Conservation of all living species is considered nearly impossible. Many conservationists find it just to prioritize which species to aid [Marris, 2007 as cited in Wright et al., 2011]. A majority of primates within tropical forests are frugivorous and play a crucial role to the prosperity of seed dispersal for the flora of the biome [Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. It is a common perception that frugivorous primates are the primary dispersers of seeds in Malagasy forestry, many of which are endemic. Lemurs play a much more crucial role in seed dispersal than other frugivores. The lemurs inhabiting Madagascar are one of the species deserving of conservation, with 94% of lemur species threatened with extinction [Schwitzer, 2013 as cited in Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. The country of Madagascar also harbors one of the world’s most diverse biomes. Madagascar ecosystem that may very easily degrade comes with this diversity of flora and fauna. The flora density of Madagascar is dwindling and will disappear without the assistance of seed dispersal from the sympatric lemurs. In addition, many other methods plant-life may undergo seed dispersal exist, such as vicariance, chance dispersal, and other non-primate frugrivores dispersing seeds. However, these methods are not nearly as efficient as lemur seed consumption, digestion, and dispersal. The extremities of potential effects derived from degradation or termination of the lemur species on the ecosystem is properly understood through a few particular concepts [Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. The concept of focus is to comprehend how many sympatric dispersers affect the spatial trends of seed diaspora and taking on of their host plant [Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. This concept properly explains the day-to-day activity of lemurs and their exclusive fruit consumption. Lemurs travel less than all other primates within Madagascar, confining the range of seed dispersal [Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. However, this is beneficial due to deforestation and human invasion. Lemurs also range from sizes, promoting the consumption of a wide variety of fruit and seed sizes. The importance lemurs have on the preservation of the inhabiting flora assemblages is well understood after comprehension of these topics.
Methods & Materials
This research article falls under a META scientific report, utilizing specific statistical analysis of the cited research.

No research was cited or referenced when less than two lemurs were studied, also when the lemurs were examined for a time span less than one year. Moreover, any non-lemur frugivores (excluding birds and bats) studies were not considered for review when lacking data with a comparative to lemurs. Morphological and physiological data for aves and bats were reviewed in articles independent from one another. Also, aves bill size and shape were only considered for endemic species in order to maintain a focus on conservation prioritization. Geographical and economic data of Madagascar was referenced by annual updates from reliable sources

online.
Discussion (lemur size and activity):
The varieties of lemur species within Madagascar differ in mass from 30 grams to 9 kg [Valenta et al., 2013]. Because of this, these Lemuroideas can consume all varieties of fruits, and release the seeds intact, capable of germination [Wright et al., 2011]. These primates contribute towards seed dispersal, regardless of their typical nocturnal life style, and slow pace. This is so, because primates have fairly extensive gut retention times (1.57-38 hours) [Campell, 2000, 2004; Labert, 2002; Overdorff & Rasmussen, 1995 as cited in Wright et al., 2011]. Primates also commonly travel long distances from day to day. Lengthy travels by the primate digesting the seed from the host tree avoid the elevated mortality rate of seeds from the competition of high seed densities [Wright et al., 2011]. However, lemurs commonly disperse far less than the typical primate [Razafindratsima et al., 2010].
Day-active and nocturnal lemurs are widely known to be rather sluggish with their day-to-day traveling. The existing lemur species as a whole are inactive, with hindered metabolic rates in comparative to other frugivorous primates [Razafindratsima et al., 2010]. This limited movement would restrict lemur seed dispersal at a first glimpse. However, this form of local dispersal is preferred because the current state Malagasy forests have frequent human invasion.
Discussion (Malagasy forest invasion):
Approximately eight percent of Madagascar’s forests are under protection. Even the protected areas are still threatened of illegal logging; simply because of the limitations locals have on forming lucrative wages for their families. 90% of Madagascar’s population is surviving on less than 2 US dollars a day, and tourism to Madagascar is dwindling [AFC et al., 2014], confining locals to attempt to gather wages from the surrounding environment. The most common method of gaining money for locals is through deforestation to create charcoal [AFC et al., 2014] This third-world country has no means to improve its current impoverished state, thus forcing the biome to accommodate for the limitations of area from deforestation. Malagasy forests and fauna must accommodate by forming a sturdy biome within the lessened area allotted to development. The activity of the lemur species promotes this type of development, benefiting the entire biome [Wright et al., 2011]. Floras are incapable of reliable seed dispersal without an outside fore, such as this.
Successful plant seed dispersal and vitality is unlikely without an outside influence, like that of seed defecation from lemurs that have migrated from the source of the fruit. Natural seed dispersal and other means of dispersal, such as vicariance do not provide the means for flora survival of the Malagasy forests.
Discussion (natural dispersal/ vicariance impact):
Geographic vicariance playing a crucial role in Malagasy forest stability is a common misconception, for it only contributes to plant diversity, rather than plant survival. Madagascar split from the Gondwana supercontinent approximately 150 million years ago, just 34 million years after the approximate beginning of the separation of Gondwana. The landmass known as Madagascar underwent continental drift well before a majority of the other regions separated. Madagascar’s inhabitants were isolated for millions of years longer than other plants and animals of other landmasses, providing the island with an extended time frame for diversification. Thus, validating the extremity of the diversity of biome within the island. However, the impact vicariance currently makes towards seed dispersal in modern times is restricted to barriers of bodies of water, mountain ranges, etc. [Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. These physical barriers either restrict seed dispersal or do not even fall under the definition of geographic vicariance when applied.
Mountain ranges only restrict the successful seed migration of plants. In turn, this would increase the seed density in the restricted area and raises the mortality levels from competition [Thomas et al., 2014]. A vicariance movement similar to the formation of a geographic barrier occurred for the Hyacinthaceae subfamily, Urgineoidea approximately 21.6 million years ago and led to their extinction [Ali et al., 2013]. Bodies of water would only contribute to seed dispersal by means of chance dispersal, rather than vicariance. The effects bodies of water have on seed dispersal when considering vicariance actually possesses an ill effect, congesting seed landing, just like that of mountain ranges. Any positive effects geographic barriers have on seed dispersal may be disregarded due to the instability of the biome from human inhabitance and lack of forest protection [Wright et al., 2011], limiting the forms of vicariance and making the material debatably negligible.
The contributions natural or chance dispersal make on seed dispersal are also restricted with limitations in probability and the surrounding geographic setting for the host plant [Thomas et al., 2014]. Host trees located near running bodies of water are capable of dispersing seeds down stream easily, however, this great concept is restricted by the probability of this occurrence [Thomas et al., 2014]. Madagascar is home to only 29 rivers; covering 5,500 of the islands 587,040 total square kilometers [Maps of World, 2013]. These dispersal methods are highly restricted with complete dependency on the placement of the host plant. With this being said, geographic vicariance, and natural or chance dispersal are debatably negligible in terms of flora preservation of Malagasy forests. This leaves discussion for dispersal from frugivorous lemurs (primates) and non-primate frugrivores, such as bats or birds.
Bird and bat frugrivores are unable to form as efficient of a mutualistic relationship with host plants as lemurs are able to [Razafindratssima et al., 2010]. Bird and bats are incapable to defecating intact seeds that surpass an incredibly small range of seed sizes. The Spermestes cucullatus of the Spermestes genus does not have a bill that is averaged at 11mm, and the genus, Serinus is restricted to a diet consisting of small seeds and berries [Hino et al., 2009]. The bird genus and species mentioned are avian mixed, exemplifying bird diversification in morphology (including bill length and width) [Hino et al., 2009]. These birds still are restricted to smaller fruits, regardless of their altered morphology. Non-avian mixed bird species are also confined to small fruits and seed for their diet, due to their small bill sizes. For example, the birds under the Mentocrex genus do not have a bill width surpassing 4.8mm [Goodman et al., 2011]. Thus, only host plants possessing small seeds are able to benefit from dispersing birds and bats. Many would assume that aves and bat mammalians provide a more efficient method of seed dispersal for host plants, however this strictly applies only to host plants with seed sizes of which is only a small proportion of the existing flora in the Madagascar forestry [Lehman et al., 2007]. Bird and bat species of Madagascar possess a fairly exclusive diet of seeds, fruits, etc. [Hino et al., 2009], similar to the dietary physiology of lemurs. Also, the forests are completely depauperate of bird and bat species because of the early split from Gondwana, lessening the percentage of seed dispersing plants receiving aid in dispersal from birds and bats and limiting the consistency of reliable seed dispersal. This confines the preservation of local flora arrangement to be assigned to frugivorous primates, lemurs in particular, regardless of their limited motility.
Lemurs expected effect is widely validated upon extensive research. For example, Frugrivory in Four Sympatric Lemurs: Implications for the Future of Madagascar’s Forest by Patricia Wright provides incentive to reject the null hypothesis of lemurs lacking substantial, positive impact on seed dispersal. Wrights article examines the likelihood that the rectitude of a forest is dependent upon the whole fauna lineage. 4 of the 13 sympatric lemur species of Madagascar’s eastern rainforests were studied day-to-day for five years [Wright et al., 2011]. Approximately 50% of families and genera of fruit-bearing species are eaten exclusively by one of the four species of lemurs within the eastern rainforests [Wright et al., 2011]. This research validates the dependency host plants have on successful seed dispersal and the impact the termination of the lemur lineage have on local flora assemblage. Also, lemurs are fastidious about which fruit they consume.
Lemurs consume and digest fruits that are small enough to remain intact after defecating [Sato et al., 2011].

Seeds frequently remain intact when consumed by lemurs, because of the variation in lemur size [Wright et al., 2011]. There is a direct relation with lemur size, and the seed/fruit size consumed [Gabriel et al., 2013]. These frugrivores do not consume fruits with seeds that are too large to be safely consumed without grinding down in size [Wright et al., 2011]. This retention of seed structure and variety in fruit consumption better rejects the null hypothesis of host plants lacking a dependency on the lemur species for seed dispersal. The disappearance of lemurs affects localized regions of flora assemblages, and is supported by these

claims.
Conclusion:
The rearrangement or disappearance of these local flora assemblages may affect all species inhabiting the biome, including all forms of relationships with organisms of the host plant varying from mutualism, commensalism, or symbiotic relationships. This makes the entire ecosystem very dependent upon the survival of the lemur species, which are the only reliable seed dispersers. Conservation of lemurs is a priority in order to maintain all local flora and fauna assemblages [Wright et al., 2011]. The sympatric, frugivorous lemurs of Madagascar must be conserved in order to aid in the perpetuation of the local flora populations.
Other contributors towards successful seed dispersal lack consistency and enough reliability to be considered to apply a large effect on flora survival. These contributors are as follows: vicariance, chance dispersal, other frugivorous primates, and non-primate frugrivores. All of these contributors are negligible when considering the conservation of the host plants for a variation of purposes.
Vicariance is limited to select geographic barriers that impact seed dispersal, many of which leave a negative impact, restricting the land availability for seed germination. Other geographic barriers that actually contribute towards successful seed dispersal, such as bodies of water provide the host plant with small probabilities of dispersal. Aves and bats are depauperate within Malagasy forests, with exclusive diets limiting the amount of plants that are aided in seed dispersal from these species [Hino et al., 2009]. Aves and bats also possess small bills and jaws, limiting their diet to smaller seeds and fruits [Goodman et al., 2011]. Madagascar forests are dwindling in area available, completely altering biome arrangement, increasing species concentration in a specific region, increasing the specificity of fauna seed dispersal. Short distances of seed defecation from the host plant are necessary for flora survival due to inevitable human invasion. Other primates commute too far from day-to-day, making their reliability limited [Razafindratssima et al., 2010], leaving lemurs the main symbiont to the host plant for seed dispersal [Wright et al., 2011]. Sympatric lemurs are necessary to conserve because of their dietary physiology, day-to-day activity, and the positive effects they provide for the local flora assemblages.