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The influence of religion on science
How religion plays a role in science
The influence of religion on science
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Throughout his various works and discoveries, Galileo makes a distinction between
religion and natural philosophy that holds up beyond his personal feelings, proven through his various works and discoveries. The Aristotelian view of the universe was based upon a common sense argument that gave credit to many discoveries throughout antiquity. Those discoveries were based upon a mix of science and scripture that was regarded as fact. Galileo brings something different to the table, the notion of observation. In appealing to observation, Galileo is able to make a clear distinction between religion and natural philosophy that is credible beyond his personal beliefs.
Throughout his career, Galileo had to argue against the longstanding belief in
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what can be dubbed ‘old science,’ or the Aristotelian account of the natural world. In The Scientific Revolution, Shapin highlights what Galileo is up against. In a broad sense, there was a fundamental difference between the earth and the heavens, especially in the physical characteristics. It was believed, from the time of Aristotle, that within the heavens there were no changes and no conceivable imperfections. The heavenly bodies were always in motion and that motion was always circular in form (Shapin 1998, 17). Galileo’s discoveries and writings were in direct opposition to these long-standing principals concerning natural philosophy and the heavens. The Aristotelian view is greatly expanded by the work of the ancient Greek philosopher, Ptolemy. When regarded by later philosophers and thinkers, Ptolemy is often criticized for his work and his lack of scientific validity (Hübner 2001, 59). Ptolemy’s zodiacal philosophy is important to the understanding of the distinction that Galileo makes between religion and natural philosophy in later times. God, in the case of zodiacal philosophy, is a uniting figure. Ptolemy divides the geography of the known world into quarters and then attributes various planets to each quarter. As each planet is named after an ancient Greek god or goddess, the population of the geographical location that corresponds with a planet takes on the characteristics of the god or goddess (Hübner 2001, 86). For example, those who live in a territory that is controlled by Mercury would take on characteristics that embody “eloquence, humanity and civlizatin” (Hübner 2001, 88). Although the particulars of Ptolemy’s zodiacal philosophy are not of extreme importance in regards to Galileo’s work explicitly, it is a perfect example of what Galileo has to overcome in making his distinction: the longstanding belief that religion and natural philosophy are innately interwoven. Prior to Galileo, was the mathematician and astronomer, Copernicus. Copernicus’ work was highly debated and even labeled heretic by the Catholic Church because it claimed that the Sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe. Copernicus also contended that the planets rotated around the Sun versus the popular notion that they rotated around the earth. The heliocentric model was in direct contradiction to passages in the Bible, which many theologians took as the literal word of God. Galileo’s work was not condemned by the papacy, but when Galileo went back on his word and was sentenced to house arrest for lending proof, validity and the ability for replication that bolstered Copernicus’ theory and his work was labeled as heresy. The main factor that led to Galileo to clearly distinguish between religion and natural philosophy was his invention of the telescope. He first hears of the telescope and its potential in 1609 (Gingerich 2011, 136). Galileo firsts mentions the telescope in the Siderius nuncius (1610), “…one shall fashion two circles or two square pieces of paper, one of which is 400 times greater than the other; this will happen when the diameter of the greater is twenty times the length of the diameter of the other” (Finnochiaro 2008, 50). He is relaying the mechanics of the telescope so that other natural philosophers, if they have the means to do so, have the opportunity to replicate Galileo’s findings and give them validity. In Galileo’s Instruments of Credit, Mario Bagioli claims that one of Galileo’s biggest fears was that people would use the technology of the telescope and through replication of his own technique, would uncover more than him. This theory holds some truth in that Galileo dedicated a mere five paragraphs to the description of the mechanics of the telescope and ends by saying that he will publish a complete analysis of the telescope, yet never does (Biagoli 2006, 79). Regardless of varying hypothesis concerning Galileo’s feelings on the telescope, one thing is clear: the telescope was the instrument that led to Galileo’s famous observations of the imperfections on the moon, the phases of Venus and the Medician Stars. The Siderius nuncius is the work in which Galileo makes his monumental discoveries that challenge the papacy and the Ptolemaic account. Using the telescope, Galileo studied the quarters of the moon. It seems that much to his surprise; he found imperfections on the surface of the moon, lending proof against the arguments of Scripture that theologians had used to validate that the heavenly bodies were perfect. “In the great spots, we do not see such differences of the depressions and prominences as we are compelled to recognize in the brighter parts owing to the change of their shape under different degrees of illumination by the sun’s rays, according to the manifold variety of the sun’s position with regard to the moon” (Finnochiaro 2008, 56). The surface of the moon was similar to the surface of earth. Both had dips, craters and ridges and seemed to have a rugged character (Finnochiaro 2008, 54). The observation of the imperfections on the moon’s surface is among the first discoveries unveiled through the telescope that led to Galileo’s ability to distinguish between religion and natural philosophy. The use of the telescope in proving the imperfection of the moon is what Biagoli claims is the specificity of Galileo’s “observational protocols” (Biagoli 2006, 101).
In order to distinguish between religion and natural philosophy, Galileo appealed to the centuries old sentiment of observation. If people were able to reproduce or procure their own instrument such as the telescope, they could simply observe the craters and shadows of the moon themselves. People would be able to observe the change in the appearance of the lunar surface in connection to how it was struck by the suns rays (Biagoli 2006, 106). In a broad sense, Galileo was able to build what we would call the basic elements of science today, validity and replicability, which allowed him to divide religion and …show more content…
philosophy. Around the same time that Galileo discovered the so-called “incorruptible” lunar surface, he also discovered the Medicean Stars (Ginerich 2011, 137). The Medicean Stars is the name given to the satellites that orbited Jupiter. He named them after the ruling family of Florence at the time, the de’Medici family (Finnochiaro 2008, 31). Again, this is an example of Galileo successfully separating religion and natural philosophy through an appeal to observation. Through the lens of the telescope, it was clear that the stars, also referred to as planets, rotated around Jupiter itself. This discovery went against a notion of antiquity: that all things in the universe rotated around earth. If the Aristotelian logic were true, Galileo would not have observed any motion of the stars around Jupiter whatsoever. The telescope not only allowed Galileo to observe the Stars, but he was able to observe the phases of Venus. In The Impact of the Telescope, and the Birth of Modern Astronomy, Owen Ginerich talks about another discovery that Galileo was able to uncover from the use of the telescope, the phases of Venus. The various phases become apparent during the planet’s rotation around the Sun (Gingerich 2011, 138). Through observation, Galileo was able to refute antiquity’s argument of common sense and God as a basis of fact in regards to the idea that all planets rotated around earth. Cardinal Bellarmine commented on this discovery by claiming that just because the phases of Venus can be explained under the Copernican system does not mean that the Copernican system is proven as true (Gingerich 2011,139). Gingerich states that Galileo’s various discoveries may not have proved the heliocentric model explicitly, but they did provide a new framework to thing about things (Gingerich 2011, 137). Galileo gives some insight into the discussion of lending credibility to Copernicus over Aristotle in his work, Dialogue of the Two Chief World Systems (1632). In his book, The Essential Galileo, Maurice Finnochiaro compiles some of Galileo’s most famous writings concerning his various findings.
One excerpt is from the previously mentioned Dialogue of the Two Chief World Systems (1632) in which Galileo debates the arguments of Aristotle and Potelmy against those of Copernicus through three characters, Salviati, Sagredo and Simplicio. On day three of the arguments, Salviati, Sagredo and Simplicio debate heliocentrism. Simplicio applies to Ptolemy’s zodiacal philosophy in claiming that the earth is the center of the universe: “…if the terrestrial globe should move in the course of a year along the circumference of a circle, namely, along the zodiac, it would be impossible for it to be simultaneously at the center of the zodiac” (Finnochiaro 2008, 234). In retaliation, Salviati appeals to observation. He says that all the planets are sometimes different distances from the earth. Salviati states that Aristotle was wrong in his thinking that all the planets are an equal distance from earth (Finnochiaro 2008, 236). To explain his point in more detail, Salviati has Simplicio draw a diagram according to the observation of the heavenly bodies. “… the heavenly bodies have been arranged just as in the Copernican system, and you have done this yourself” (Finnochiaro 2008, 240). In the Dialogue, Galileo has Salviati use observation to explain to Simplicio that recent discoveries are more in line with the Copernican view and that in turn, heliocentrism should be seen as more credible and valid in the scientific
community. Throughout Galileo’s discoveries, there was a common theme of the use of the telescope lending strength to observation. In using observation as a defining feature of his arguments towards heliocentrism, Galileo is able to draw a line between religion and natural philosophy. Gingerich mentions that Galileo studied the writings of Saint Augustine. Saint Augustine influenced Galileo significantly and led him to the conclusion that the Bible has an element of universality, but at the same time, it is “neither a cosmological treatise or scientific text” (Gingerich 2011, 138). Gingerich quotes Galileo as stating, “…the Bible teaches how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go” (140). Galileo’s personal stance on religion does impact how he views both the Ptolemaic view and the Copernican view, but his appeal to observation over the antiquated appeal towards common sense allows his discoveries to go beyond his own convictions. Gingerich says, “Science works by persuasion, not by dramatic irrefutable proofs” (141). Galileo uncovered many “irrefutable proofs” towards the Copernican theory, such as the imperfections of the moon, the Medicean Stars and the phases of Venus. But, it was not until the scientific community was persuaded after many years and many more discoveries that the heliocentric view of the universe was accepted. Galileo’s endorsement toward the use of observation through the use of the telescope allowed him to differentiate between religion and natural philosophy beyond his personal inclination towards heliocentrism. Works Cited Biagoli, M. (2006). Galileo's Instruments of Credit: Telescopes, Images, Secrecy. N.p.: The University of Chicago Press. Finocchiaro, M. A. (Ed.). (2008). The Essential Galileo. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company. Gingerich, O. (2011, June). Galileo, the Impact of the Telescope, and the Birth of Modern Astronomy. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 155(2), 134-141. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Hübner, W. (2001). The Ptolemaic View of the Universe. In Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 41 (pp. 59-93). Shapin, S. (1998). The Scientific Revolution (pp. 15-65). N.p.: The University of Chicago Press.
Galileo had heard about the theories that the previous scientists had stated. Galileo wanted to see if what they were saying was accurate. To prove the heliocentric theory he invented the telescope in the year 1609 that help to confirm that it was in fact the heliocentric model instead of what everyone believed which was the geocentric model. Galileo started to share his discoveries to the public, but stopped after the Church told him not to share the information. (Doc ) However, the timeline indicates that Galileo waited seventeen years before sharing the information again publicly, so he actually obeyed the Church’s request for a very long time. Galileo was a devoted Catholic and strongly believed in the words of the Bible. In a letter written in 1615 written by Galileo to the duchess of Tuscany Galileo he stated how the Bible can sometime be misunderstood,“ But [he] believe that nobody will deny that the Bible is often very complex, and may say things which are quite different from what its bare words signify…”(document A). Galileo wanted to convince the Duchess that perhaps the evidence he gathered could be used to interpret the sun’s placement as the Bible was difficult to understand at times. The fact that Galileo was so religious validated his reliability, because he would have favored the Bible over his theory. He only argued about this one concept from the Bible and he had physical evidence and support from other scientists to prove his
During the Scientific Revolution, the struggle between faith and reason was exhibited through Galileo and his discoveries. The Catholic Church during the time period of the Scientific Revolution did not approve of any outside scientists who came up with new theories and observations. The Church believed that all information about how the world worked was in the bible and that was the only right source. In an excerpt from “What is Scientific Authority?” written by Galileo in 1615, it states, “Showing a greater fondness for their [Catholic Church’s] own opinions than for truth, they sought to deny & disprove the new things which, if they had cared to look for themselves, their own senses would have demonstrated to them…” Galileo Galilei himself knew that the Church was not willing to approve of new ideas from other scientists, but only from the teachings in the Bible. Later on in the excerpt, Galileo writes, “They [Catholic Church] hurled various charges &…made the grave mistake of sprinkling these with passages taken from places in the Bible which they had failed to understand properl...
In 1695 Galileo wrote a Letter to The Grand Duchess Christina. This letter discussed the relationship between the traditional biblical beliefs of the time (the basis on which their society was built), scientific discoveries, and their correlation with one another. The purpose of the letter was to inform that the scientific discoveries being made were not hearsay or contradictory to the Bible, rather they were natural laws, which could coincide with Scriptural based beliefs, not oppose them. In the Letter to The Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo implies that science is the means by which G-d meant for humanity to understand scriptural truths. This belief can be applied to the present day by finding equilibrium, and in turn allowing for a balanced life.
Galileo’s contributions to the science of Physics and Astronomy were many. His conviction was legendary. His willingness to suffer for his beliefs exemplify true courage in the name of truth, and has inspired others to venture intellectual independence from the Church‘s creeds, edicts, and proclamations. Perhaps these contributions led to the call for an investigation into Galileo's conviction, eventually calling for its reversal, in 1979 by Pope John Paul II. But regardless of his standing in the annals of the Catholic church he will always be the man who began the separation of science and religion.
The main argument which Galileo’s opponents used against his theory was that in many places in the Bible it is mentioned that the Earth stands still and that the Sun revolves around it. Galileo himself was a devout Christian and did not mean to question God’s power or the Holy Writ with his work. As a result, to support his claim, he developed three logical arguments in his letter, which he backed with the opinions of leading Christian authorities, in order to prove that science can reinforce religion rather than discredit it.
I think that according to Galileo an individual gains knowledge of nature threw observation. Galileo believed no one really went out into the world as he did and used the senses that God gave us when we where created, to observe the physical world. He was a very persistent individual and was always looking further into what he observed our read. Many people went along with how he gained knowledge of nature but the few who did not tried to find other ways to damage his beliefs and ideas.
Galileo Galilei was an Italian philosopher born in 1564. As an adult, he didn’t believe the universal geocentric theory of the planets and heavens which was established by the Catholic Church. The church taught that the Earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around our planet. Another theory that the Church supported was that the Earth stood still while the sun rose and set every day. Society in the 1500’s believed that the Pope spoke for God through a divine connection and to against the church was to go against God. To speak out against the church in this time was strictly taboo. If one was to speak against the church was considered to be heresy, which is exactly what happened to Galileo. Galileo invented the telescope and began studying the heavens above and noticed that changes within the stars and planets. He noticed that the “stars” that surrounded Jupiter moved. He came to the conclusion through rational thinking, that the Copernicus’ heliocentric theory was correct. Copernicus was a scientist and philosopher whose theory proposed that the sun was stationary and the heavens orbit around the sun. Galileo tried to convince the church not to aboli...
improved by Aristotle. But Galileo came up with a new argument named heliocentrism. In a long
In 1610 he was one of the first people to use the telescope to observe
In the year 1612 controversy arose regarding the heliocentric or Sun-centered universe which Galileo advocated alongside the evidence made by astronomist Nicholas Copernicus. Galileo was aware of the position of the greater population of the people and where they stood in terms of their opinions on this matter. The geocentric system of the universe had been presented and was accepted since the time of Aristotle. The Catholic Church believed the geocentric system to be true because there was literary evidence in Scripture. From 1614 the Roman Catholic Church began to judge Galileo’s discoveries and his proposition of the heliocentric system to be false and nearly heretical. F...
Beside this, another invention of Galileo is the pendulum. The invention of pendulum also brought huge scope of research in front of the future scientists. This helped the people to measure the time. This led to the invention of the watch in the future. Before the invention of pendulum, people used to measure time on the basis of the position of the sun. This reduces the pressure of the people and saved time. Galileo also did the experiment on the motion. All these experiments brought revolution in the Europe in particular and the world in general.
He published a book called Letters on the Sunspots, which explained the problems of the heavens; his argument was that the heavens contained impurities because the sun had dark patches on its surface called sun spots (Famous Scientists 6). Furthermore, he stated that it was better scientifically proven that the earth and all other planets orbited the sun. This was known as the heliocentric view, proposed by Nicholas Copernicus, and was later on accepted as the actual view of the universe. Furthermore, Galileo went so far as to write that the bible had to be remade based on modern science (“Famous Scientists” 7). The Church responded by banning all books published by Copernicus, along with neglecting Galileo. However, Galileo continued on with his publications and was eventually sentenced to life in house arrest. As a result, Galileo had spent eight years of his life in his house. After which, he died, but not before he published his final book of two new sciences. It was called, Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning the Two New Sciences (Famous Scientists 7) and he called the two new sciences the science of material and the science of motion. This book explains Galileo’s scientific findings from his years of experimenting and theorizing. The Catholic Church was not able to stop Galileo’s books from being available in the countries of England, Holland, Germany, Scotland, Switzerland, and Scandinavia. It has been argued that this was the book that caused Isaac Newton to create his laws of motion (Famous Scientists 7). After Galileo’s death, the Catholic Church began to accept Galileo’s work and allowed his books to be published. It wasn’t until 1835 that everything written by Galileo was approved by the
Much to the dismay of the Church, two astronomers Galileo and Kepler had the audacity to challenge the authorities by suggesting that the sun-not the earth-was at the center of the universe. The church had a stronghold on the way the spiritual and physical world worked, so these discoveries only added to the Church’s resistance to their aims. Their discoveries came only after Kepler and Galileo began to question ancient theories about how the world functioned. These ancient truths were widely held but were inconsistent with the new observations that they had made. Kepler had discovered the laws of planetary motion which suggested that the planet would move in elliptical orbits, while Galileo followed with his discovery of the principle of inertia. Galileo concluded his finding b...
Galileo invented a thermometer in 1593, a compass in 1597, a telescope in 1609, a compound microscope in 1609, and the pendulum clock in 1641. Out of all of his accomplishments, Galileo’s most notable achievement was his improvement of the “spyglass”, telescope, in 1609. Galileo set up a telescope on his rooftop in Padua and made some incredible observations. He was able to see the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, sunspots, and the moon’s surface. He issued The Starry Messenger in 1610, Letters on Sunspots in 1613 and was put in the position of Mathematician and philosopher to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1610 the majority of Galil...
Galileo was one of the first people to use the newly developed telescope to look into the heavens. What he saw there, from stars to features of the Moon, proved to him that the heavens were much more complicated than was realized at the time. A philosopher and a mathematician in the court of the Duke of Tuscany, Galileo presented his findings to the court, gaining favor for his theories with shrewd political skills and persuasive discussion. Despite the fact that Galileo could not prove his Copernican based model of heliocentricity, he banked on the fact that few people would understand enough Ptolemaic mathematics to dispute his claims. Galileo, a naturalist, further proposed that the universe was not a disorganized mess, but rather a place subject to mathematical laws.