Fashion And Advertising: Body Anxiety And Eating Disorders

Samantha Geffert

Professor Easlick

PS 112

12/8/2014

Photoshop in Fashion and Advertising

Introduction

The fashion industry is known for being controversial, sexualized, and for having exaggerated perceptions of beauty through visual means and through the use of photomanipulation. The resulting aesthetic is unattainable to everyday women, and this unattainability is crucial for the fashion industry to thrive. However, the resulting expectations and anxieties created in everyday women make some believe that significantly photoshopped images and advertisements should be labeled or banned. The purpose of this paper is to determine the extent to which media, specifically photoshop in fashion and advertising, plays a role in the development of body anxiety and eating disorders. It will look at a number of studies that evaluate the short and long term effects the media has on self perception and eating behaviors, each study listed going from least to most credible, based on the quality of the sample. It will review studies conducted on both sides of the issue to rationally decide whether or not body anxiety and eating disorders can be credited to media

influence, and consequently, whether or not photomanipulation in fashion and advertising should be labeled or banned.
Media Exposure and Eating Disorders
One argument for the banning of photo manipulation in media and advertising is the promotion of eating disordered behaviors in adolescent females.

This negative influence has been tested in a study conducted by Anne E. Becker, PhD, who assessed the results of prolonged exposure to television on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among Fijian adolescent girls. The findings of the study were:

1. Following exposure of of television, key indicators of disordered eating were significantly more prevalent in Fiji's adolescent girls

2. There was data supporting subjects' interest in weight loss as a means of modeling themselves after television characters

Therefore, there is a negative impact of television upon disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in a media-naive

population.
This source was conducted by an expert with credentials provided within their area of expertise, so it can be viewed as authoritative. This argument form is inductive generalization from a sample, in which the conclusion about a population was derived from a consideration of the sample. The experiment was a controlled cause-to-effect experiment because it tested whether or not the media is a factor for a given effect, in this case, being body anxiety. The two groups were essentially alike, except the members of the experimental group were exposed to the media, and the control group were the adolescents responses prior to being exposed to the media. In a controlled cause to effect experiment, the effect must be found to occur with significantly more frequency in the experimental group for the suspected casual agent to be considered a factor for the effect. In this case, it was.
In the experiment, Becker used a multi-wave cross-sectional design to compare two samples of Fijian students before and after prolonged exposure to television with a modified 26-item eating attitudes test, then conducted an interview to confirm self-reported symptoms. The first wave occurred in 1995, within a few weeks of the introduction of television to Nadroga, a previously media free region. The second wave occurred in 1998, after the area had been exposed to television for 3 years. Sixty three participants responded to the study in 1995, within a month of television being introduced to the area, and Sixty five respondents participated in 1998, after television had been broadcast to the area for 3 years. The response rate of the total number of students meeting inclusion criteria was not available in 1995. In 1998, the response rate was 71%. The quality of the sample in this experiment is debatable, because it may not be large and diversified enough to be representative of the population.
After exposure, there were differences between the controlled and experimental group. 83% of the subjects interviewed responded that they felt television had specifically influenced either themselves or their friends to feel differently about their weight or bod shape, and 77% reported that television had influenced their own body image. However, the quality of the sample is not very reliable, with only 63 respondents participating in 1995 and 65 in 1998. If a sample is to represent a population, the sample must be large and diversified enough to accurately represent the population. The argument is weakened because the sample given is too small.
This study is significant because it resulted in prevalent key indicators of disordered eating following the exposure of Western media. Because body dissatisfaction and eating disordered behaviors were not prevalent in Fiji adolescents prior to the exposure, it can be assumed that the unattainable standard normalized in advertising in the media does negatively impact its viewers. However, due to the small quality of the sample compared to the entire female consumer base that is exposed to the media, the argument is weakened.
Idealized Images and Eating Behaviors
A second argument for the banning of photo manipulation in media and advertising is that the highly idealized images in the media lead women to alter their eating behavior. In a study conducted by Fiona J. Monro and Gail. F. Huon of School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, eating behavior was examined using a taste test that involved sweet and savory food, and the restraint in eating behaviors in the participants was tested. The study revealed that:
1. Participants with high self objectification levels ate more food when presented with the highly idealized images than the group not exposed
2. Participants with low self objectification levels ate more food when not confronted with the images than when confronted
3. Restraint status was not found to moderate the relationship between exposure to idealized images the amount of food consumed
Therefore, the results indicate that exposure to media-portrayed idealized images can lead to changes in eating behavior.
This source was conducted by an expert with credentials provided within their area of expertise, so it can be viewed as authoritative. This argument form is inductive generalization from a sample, in which the conclusion about a population was derived from a consideration of the sample.
The experiment was a controlled cause-to-effect experiment because it tested whether or not highly idealized images are a factor for a given effect, in this case, being restrictive eating. The two groups were essentially alike, except the members of the experimental group were exposed to the highly idealized images, and the control group were not exposed. In a controlled cause to effect experiment, the effect must be found to occur with significantly more frequency in the experimental group for the suspected casual agent to be considered a factor for the effect. In this case, there was a significant difference in the eating behaviors of the experimental group.
In this experiment, 72 female university students were divided into two groups based on high and low self objectification levels, which was determined through a questionnaire. Then, the participant was exposed to either six magazine advertisements featuring idealized female models, or the same six advertisements with the idealized body digitally removed. After exposure, the participants' eating behavior was examined in a taste test.
Though the study did not reveal any difference in amount of food consumed between the groups, after exposure to idealized images, the amount of food consumed was greater for those high in self-objectification than those low in self-objectification. However, when no idealized body was featured in the advertisement, the amount of food consumed by those high in self-objectification was less than the amount consumed by those low in self-objectification.
Again, the quality of the sample is small when compared to the entire female consumer base that encounter highly photo manipulated images in the media. Also, this study is inconsistent with previously conducted studies, which indicate that high self-objectifiers restrict their food intake in response to body-focused situations.
This study is significant because it shows the immediate short term effects of photoshopped images of highly idealized women. The change in eating after viewing the highly idealized images reveals the negative impact advertisements have on body image and behavior, however, the behavior is not consistent with previously recorded studies. This, along with the small quality of the sample, take away credibility from the argument.
Photoshopped Images on Vulnerable Adolescents
Another argument for the banning or labeling of highly photomanipulated images in the media is the effect it will have on youth that have an eating disorder or have a predisposition to developing one. This claim was tested in a study conducted by Eric Stice of  University of Texas at Austin, Diane Spangler of  Brigham Young University, and W. Stewart Agras of Stanford University. They tested the long term effects of photo manipulation in fashion magazines in adolescent females and found:
1. There were no main effects of long-term exposure to the fashion magazine on growth in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting, negative affect, or bulimic symptoms over time for adolescents satisfied with their bodies
2. Exposure to thin-ideal images resulted in greater negative affect for vulnerable adolescents characterized by initial elevations in pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction
3. Exposure to thin-ideal images resulted in in increased body dissatisfaction, dieting, and bulimic symptoms for vulnerable youth lacking adequate social support.
Therefore, a subset of youth that already experiences body dissatisfaction or low social support are negatively influenced by highly idealized images.
This source was conducted by an expert with credentials provided within their area of expertise, so it can be viewed as authoritative. This argument form is inductive generalization from a sample, in which the conclusion about a population was derived from a consideration of the sample.
The experiment was a controlled cause-to-effect experiment because it tested whether or not magazines containing highly idealized images were a factor for a given effect, in this case, being body anxiety and eating disordered behavior. The two groups were essentially alike, except the members of the experimental group were exposed to the highly idealized images, and the control group were not exposed to these images. In a controlled cause to effect experiment, the effect must be found to occur with significantly more frequency in the experimental group for the suspected casual agent to be considered a factor for the effect. In this case, the body anxiety and eating disordered behavior could not be credited to the magazine subscription alone.
In this experiment, 219 adolescent girls were randomly assigned a 15 month subscription to fashion magazine or a no subscription condition, and then were tested on their overall body satisfaction and eating pathology. This study found that there were no main effects of long term exposure to unrealistic body images in body satisfaction and dieting, but there was evidence that adolescents already vulnerable to body dissatisfaction and lacked strong social support were negatively affected by the exposure of these highly idealized images.
This study is significant because it shows that exposure to highly idealized images in fashion and advertising do not cause disordered eating or body anxiety. If photoshop were the cause of eating disorders, everyone who viewed an advertisement would be affected. However, this study reveals that those who are predispositioned to the disorder were adverse to the overly thin images and experienced distress. The quality of the sample in this study is more reliable than the first two, because it utilized a larger number of participants and therefore increases the argument's credibility.
Media Effects and Social Factors
One argument against banning or labeling photoshopped images in fashion and advertising is that there are other factors that lead to eating disordered behaviors and body dissatisfaction. In a study conducted by Kristen E. Van Vonderen, M.S. of University of Central Florida and William Kinnally, Ph. D. of University of Central Florida, this claim was tested and found:
1. Comparison to media figures was associated with internalization of the thin ideal, but not as strongly as peer attitudes and self-esteem
2. Peer comparisons and self-esteem were observed to be the strongest indicators of body dissatisfaction
3. Social/environmental influences and self-esteem proved to be the strongest indicators of body dissatisfaction
Therefore, media does play a role in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, but is not as strong as other social and individual factors.
This source was conducted by an expert with credentials provided within their area of expertise, so it can be viewed as authoritative. This argument form is inductive generalization from a sample, in which the conclusion about a population was derived from a consideration of the sample.
In this experiment, 285 female undergraduates completed measures of media
exposure, comparisons with media figures, self-esteem, parental and peer attitudes toward body
shape, and peer comparisons, as well as internalization of the thin-ideal and body dissatisfaction
measures.
The quality of the sample in this experiment was somewhat high. 285 female undergraduate students participated, all with varying ethnic makeup that correlated with the percent of the population reflected. This makes the results of the experiment, only self-esteem and peer comparisons were significant
predictors of body dissatisfaction, more credible.
This study is significant because it proves that body anxiety and eating disorders cannot be caused by media influence alone, rather, its influence is strengthened when combined with other societal and individual factors.
Adolescent Males Response to Highly Idealized Media
Concern for highly photomanipulated images in fashion and advertising in the media exists not only for adolescent females, but males as well. This concern was tested by Patricia van den Berg, Melanie Wall, Jia Guo, and Dianne Neumark-Sztainer of the University of Minnesota, United States, Susan J. Paxton of La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia, and Helene Keery of The Emily Program, Minnesota, United States.
This study found that:
1. In females, media body comparison partially or fully mediated relationships between self-esteem, depressive mood, friend dieting, magazine message exposure and BMI, and body dissatisfaction
2. In males, media body comparison was not a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction
Therefore, body dissatisfaction in males is not linked to media exposure.
This source was conducted by an expert with credentials provided within their area of expertise, so it can be viewed as authoritative. This argument form is inductive generalization from a sample, in which the conclusion about a population was derived from a consideration of the sample.
In this experiment, 1,386 female participants and 1,130 male participants from diverse backgrounds completed a self-report questionnaire. Then a cross-sectional model in which media body comparison mediated the impact of self-esteem, depressive mood, parent dieting environment, friend dieting, TV exposure, magazine message exposure, weight teasing and body mass index (BMI) on body dissatisfaction was created. Of all the sources, this one is most credible due to the quality of the sample. A significantly large amount of participants were utilized in this study, making the findings more reliable. The result was that media influence correlated with body dissatisfaction in females, but not males.
This experiment was significant because it included the effect, or lack thereof, media exposure has on male body satisfaction. This study shows that photomanipulation in fashion and advertising does not seem to have any adverse effects in males, however, it showed a correlation between exposure and body dissatisfaction in females, along with other factors.
Conclusion
The disagreement between both sides of this issue stem from differing views of the extent to which media and advertising can be blamed for body anxiety and eating disorders in females, Due to many influences on and the complexity of the disorder, it is not currently known what causes the disorder itself. However, it is undeniable that a correlation exists between photomanipulation of an unrealistic body type in media and body anxiety in females. The last three of the sources used are the most credible due to the significantly large quality of the sample, and each of these sources found that social and environmental factors as well as the individual's disposition have a larger influence on body anxiety and eating disordered behavior than media exposure does. However, though media exposure plays a lesser extent, it still influences those who have preexisting body anxiety or lack social or familial support. Each of the studies revealed that photomanipulated idealized images does have the potential to produce an effect. Due to the deadly nature of eating disorders, the prevalence of advertising, and the significant impact media has on society, a correlation between eating disorders and photo manipulation is enough reason to call for some kind of change. This change should start with explicitly labeling photo manipulated images in fashion and advertising.