Mammalian dopamine auto receptors are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) on membranes of neurons. Dopamine receptors are broken into two different groups, D-1 like (D1 and D5) and D2-like (D2, D3, D4). D2-like receptors are found primarily in the midbrain and mediate inhibitory neurotransmission. Increased levels of D2 receptors have been associated with disorders, including both Parkinson’s and ADHD (Anzalone,2012).
There are a number of consequences of activation of D2 receptors that make them relevant to understand ADHD. First, D2 receptors inhibit the release of dopamine vesicles through modification of voltage-gated calcium channels, decreasing synaptic concentrations of Dopamine. In parallel, the receptor also increases the plasma
ADHD is believed to be caused by abnormalities in the dopamine neurotransmitters in the brain (Berne 4). The symptoms of ADHD include inattention, impulsiveness and hyperactivity that are inappropriate for a person's age level. In other words, the patient’s brain is like a light constantly going off and on at the worst possible times. Although there is no cure for ADHD, treatment can help control symptoms. Stimulant therapy is the most commonly used type of treatment. These drugs improve ADHD symptoms in 70 percent of adults and 70-80 percent of children shortly after starting treatment (ADHD 3). Adderall RX, or its formal name of Methylphenidate, is the most common form of treatment for ADHD. In an article by Dr. Phillip W. Long, he states that, “The mode of action in man is not completely understood, but meth...
As stated previously, medication is the most common option that parents choose for their children. The most common prescriptions are Dexedrine, Cylert, Ritalin, and Adderall. Medication is highly effective. For around 75%-90% of prescribed patients, these work to solve their issues. This is a definite advantage to taking medication is that it is almost guaranteed to work. There are drawbacks to taking medication however; the trial-and-error process, cost of medication, and the side effects that can come with medication. As with any brain chemical medication, there comes a trial-and-error process to determine the right balance and the right amount to really curb the symptoms that come with. Just like any medication that people need to operate, the cost does add up whereas with behavioral therapy, there is no medication to buy and thus no costs. Lastly, there are side effects that come with ADHD. These can be insomnia, nervousness, headaches, and weight loss. Despite all these drawbacks, medication is the fastest and most effective way to treat ADHD (“Identifying and Treating Attention Deficit
One of the main treatments for ADHD is the use of medication. Primarily the main medication used is stimulants such as amphetamines. Amphetamines have been used in this treatment due to its effects of reducing the symptoms of ADHD such as behavior and irritability (Hodgkins, Shaw, McCarthy, Sallee, 2012). A major concern though with the use of amphetamines is...
Action potentials in neurons are facilitated by neurotransmitters released from the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic gap where the neurotransmitter binds with receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron. Dopamine (DA) is released into the synaptic gap exciting the neighboring neuron, and is then reabsorbed into the neuron of origin through dopamine transporter...
Dopamine sends signals to other nerve cells in the brain, which regulates movement, motivation, emotion, and feelings of pleasure.
Dopamine gives a person the willingness, and attention span, to work; which means with higher levels of dopamine in synapses, the willingness to work is also higher. In a body with ADHD, the dopamine levels are substantially lower ...
In the gruesome novel, All Quiet On The Western Front, Erich Maria Remarque, tells a story of a young boy named Paul Bäumer that fights in World War I as a German soldier. Paul is the protagonist and the narrator for most of the novel. The reader can see, through Paul, the horrors of war. Critics agree that the novel is believable. “Paul's story is the realization of the horror of war…” (Tighe 60). The setting of the novel is in the trenches of the Western Front in France and in Germany. There are numerous cultural aspects going on within this anti-war novel. Remarque accurately portrays the culture aspects of, male roles, family relations, the economy, and historical references to life during World War I in Germany and France for the soldiers on the Western front during the last two years of Word War I between 1916 and 1918.
There are several stimulant medications that are commonly used throughout the world to treat behavioral disorders for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. Some of the medications used to treat this disorder are Adderall, Concerta, Focalin, Methylin, Ritalin, and Vyvanse. These are all stimulant drugs that help treat the symptoms of ADHD in very similar ways. I will specifically be focusing on Adderall. Adderall is constructed of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine which are central nervous system stimulants. Central nervous system stimulants affect the chemicals in the brain and nerves that contribute to hyperactivity and impulse control. Not only can Adderall be a life changing medication when prescribed to a patient with ADHD,
Stimulant drugs are widely used to treat the symptoms of ADHD. These stimulants dramatically reduce the hyperactivity of sufferers and improve their ability to focus, learn and work. Such medication may also improve physical coordination, for instance handwriting and sports. Research completed by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) suggests that these medicines may also help children with an accompanying conduct disorder to control their impulsive, destructive behaviours. The three medications that have been proven by the NIMH to be most effective in both children and adults suffering from ADHD are: methylphenidate (Ritalin), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine or Dextrostat), and pemoline (Cylert). (NIMH 1999) Yet there is currently much research on the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, such as t...
ADHD, or Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and adulthood. There are many symptoms associated with ADHD but the most common include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity. Scientists are not exactly sure of what causes ADHD but they are more comfortable with the idea that a lot of different factors play a role in its development, such as, genes, environment, brain injuries, sugar, and food additives. The most widely used treatment is the drugs but this is not the only way to treat ADHD.
Dopamine is found in humans as well as animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. Further information on dopamine can be found by visiting http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Dopamine.aspx. There are four primary symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, which include (1) tremors or trembling in hands, arms, legs, jaw and face, (2) rigidity or stiffness of the limbs and trunk, (3) bradykinesia or slowness of movement, and (4) postural instability or impaired balance and coordination.. Parkinson’s is considered to be chronic and progressive, meaning it is consistent and does not go away and will only increase intensity and severity of symptoms as the disease continues. Most cases of Parkinson’s disease result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors, which several have not been identified.
Parkinson’s disease is “Characterized by the degeneration of the substantia nigra within the basal ganglia, causing a gradual decrease of the neurotransmitter dopamine” (Webb & Adler, 2008, p. 296). This disease is yet to have a known cause, although researchers are working hard in search of one. In other words, Parkinson’s disease is described as a dopamine deficiency in the caudate nucleus and the putamen (Webb & Adler, 2008, p. 176), and an excess amount of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. There is no answer as to why there is a breakdown of these nerve cells that cause Parkinson’s disease. Researchers are pointing to genetic and environmental factors that may be the cause (The Michael J Fox, n.d.).
From long time, dopaminergic hypothesis of schizophrenia has got importance because of increased dopaminergic activity in subcortical brain areas associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. In contrast to increased dopaminergic activity in the subcortical area, evidence indicates that dopaminergic activity is decreased in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenic patients (Perlstein et al., 2001). Reduction in dopaminergic D1 receptors and density of dopaminergic fiber...