.1 Communicative act
A communicative act refers to an utterance or a set of utterances, which means expressing oneself by using a combination of words, noises and sound, and therefore communicates with the others. Communicative act is also named as speech act. Austin (1962) defined language as a medium of information sharing, because language included different classes that perform actions. He described different speech situations that vary the class of performed acts. One of the preformed acts within the class included the speaker making statements, asking questions, giving command, giving reports, greeting and warning. Other than speech acts, Austin called the member of this class as ‘illocutionary acts’. Austin’s definition has been followed and developed widely in the field; many linguists gave further explanations on the term ‘speech acts’.
Based on Austin’s definition, Searle (1971) founded that communicative act can be divided into five classes:
1)Representatives: The speaker represents the state of an affair
2)Directives: The speaker aims to get the hearer to commit future course of action
3)Commissives: The speaker commits future course of action, usually with a promise
4)Expressive: The speaker wants to express himself/herself on feelings or attitudes, etc.
5)Declarations: An extralinguistic context that changes the state of an affairs, for example ‘You are fired!’ (Matthews, 2007)
1.2The speech act of Apology
Apology plays an important role in communication, and Searle (1969) had classified it as an ‘expressive act’, because apologize can repair and harmo...
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... are 9,258 non-Hong Kong companies on register in Hong Kong. It is common for these companies to hire people from different nations, in order to get contact with more markets. The figures provided by the Steering Committee on Population Policy showed that within the labour force of Hong Kong, there are only 2.5% of professionals hired from overseas (86,781 workers)(until 2012), and surely there are still many local labours that carry a different culture. Hong Kong as an international city, it is common to have different races and cultures. Therefore, a lot of corporations in Hong Kong contain workers from different races and cultures. In order to help the working efficiency through avoiding most of the conflicts cause by cultural misunderstanding, it is better to study the apologies in an international business, including the preferred ways in most of the cultures.
The essay "Forgiveness," written by June Callwood, explores the concept of forgiving and how it influences people's lives for the better. Her work describes many components of forgiveness, such as how difficult it can be to come to terms with, why it is such a crucial part of humanity, and how it affects all people. Her essay aims to prove that forgiveness is the key to living peacefully and explains specific examples of people who have encountered extremely difficult situations in their lives- all of whom found it within themselves to forgive. To clearly portray this message in her writing, Callwood uses several strategies. She includes fear inducing statistics, makes many references to famous events and leaders, and uses a serious convincing tone, all of which are very effective.
In the article“Speech Communities” by Paul Roberts, he uses examples in the text to helps give his audience an understanding of what a exactly speech community is and how they are formed in our lives.
...Y-W. (1985). Ethnic Resources and Business Enterprise: A Study of Chinese Business in Toronto. Human Organization, 44(2), 142-154.
Communication is the foundation of any society. Humans are interactive beings that must communicate in order to survive. Humans develop communication skills as infants; learning to yell when something is needed, cry when something is painful, and smile when feeling happy. As babies age they learn words; eventually learning to compose sentences allowing them to express their feelings or desires. Humans finally learn to communicate within different parts of their life with different forms of communication such as letters, spoken, visual, and more. As one ages, they become aware of the different rules of communication used with certain people and situations; such as learning to speak to a teacher in a different manner than how one talks to their friends. While doing this, people are unconsciously starting to learn how to conform in the different discourse communities. Discourse communities are an essential part of life, and learning to communicate in those communities is just as vital.
Drew, P. (1984). Speakers' reportings in invitation sequences. In J.M. Atkinson & J.C. Heritage (eds). Structures of Social Action: Studies in Conversation Analysis (pp. 129-151). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
In part one, Petersen paints a picture of how he became interested in the topic of communication. He also describes major problems that all communicators have in common. Since he grew up in an environment full of communication deficiencies, it drove him to clarify issues that were common to all communicators. One of the foundational concepts to Petersen’s book is the nature of communication. Petersen called communication the lubrication designed to keep functions of stomach, heart, and head working separately and together. The stomach is the source of feeling words, the heart is the source of perspective words, and the head is the source of our perception of facts. Without these three elements working together, communication becomes deficient. In my experience and understanding how this concept of thinking and feeling affects mine and others people relationships goes a long way towards reducing disagreement and disconnection.
Joan Cutting claims that “Austin (1962) defined speech acts as the actions performed in saying something. Speech act theory said that the action performed when an utterance is produced can be analysed on three different levels” (fig. 2) (2002: 16)
Chung has been operating under what he feels are the established norms for his culture. Ted's relationship with the Taiwanese client exhibits the Chinese management principles of paternalism, particularism, and insecurity. The patron-client relationship is based in a sense of mutual obligation, where the client is expected to defer to Ted's expertise and Ted is expected to trade the account responsibly. (Moorhouse, 2005) Ted also used social networking to establish himself in the community which is expected in the Chinese culture. By attending events Ted increases his “visibility and prestige” which contributes to the face that is needed to be considered a trustworthy business partner in the Chinese community. (Moorhouse, 2005) Karen had trouble understanding these differences in culture which is the root of the problem in this case. As stated in the case study Ted was in his early forties were stable and responsible. Karen admitted that she didn’t really know the whole person (referring to Ted) but wrote it off to the fact that he was Asian and she was not. Karen would not be described as someone with much “Cultural Intelligence” defined by the text as “the ability to accurately interpret ambiguous cross-cultural situations” (Robert Kreitner, 2008) Figure 4-2 in the text defines the differences between Low and High-Context cultures with China being a very High-Context culture and North American countries being Low-Context. Below list the traits of each type culture:
Communication is defined in the book as "a systematic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meaning." (Wood, p.9). The definition can be broken down into four separate parts and they are as follows: process, systematic, symbols, and meaning. Process means that communication is ongoing and always in motion. Systematic focuses on how communication involves a group of interrelated parts that affect one another. Symbols are described as abstract, arbitrary, and ambiguous representations of other things. The key note on symbols is that they do not only include all language, but also include an important aspect of communication which is non-verbal. The fourth and final focus is meaning and is considered the heart of communication. The great thing about meaning is that we create it.
Plato. “The Apology.” Five Dialogues: Euthyphro, Apology, Cito, Meno, Phaedo. 2nd ed. Trans. Grube, G.M.A. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc, 2002. 36.
The differences in other cultures vary from beliefs to ways of life, or norms, of the different societies. The importance of understanding and sensitivity to other countries’ differences is crucial to a business’ success. “Lack of familiarity with the business practices, social customs, and etiquette of a country can weaken a co...
This paper demonstrated how we could become more effective as communicators, and to be able to apply the four topics covered. Communication in a nutshell is the process of constructing meaning together. Our goal should be to strive to constantly improve our communication process. Most of us fall into certain habits. It's helpful to become conscious of our habits, but knowing that so you can change those habits is the critical point. Practice is the only way you will become a better communicator. As you incorporate these ideas into your life you will begin to notice an improvement in your overall communication. Sometimes, we lose site of the bigger picture. As the serenity prayer suggest, "Change the things that can be changed, accept those that cannot, and have the wisdom to know the difference.
Communication and verbal behavior are distinguished because of how they are classified. Fixed action patterns are determined by antecedents. Comparatively, verbal behavior depends on the consequences, as it is operant behavior. However, all verbal behavior can be classified a as communication, but the opposite is not true for all communication being classified as verbal behavior.
D.E. McFarland defines communication as, “Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specially, it is the process by which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings.”
“Communication is defined as the giving or exchanging of information through oral, written or non-verbal means” (Blais & Hayes 2016), and