General Introduction: One of the basic needs that almost every mammal or an animal needs to fulfill is to procreate. The only way in nature is to have sex, and for most animals sex only serves that function. However, one well-known exception is the use of sex in bonobo primates. The function of sex varies from reproduction to conflict resolution and as a means to strengthen bonds (Lanting 1997). The way sex is used in bonobos can be compared with that of their close relatives, the chimpanzees to see if they share any similarities.
Background:
Pan paniscus, known as the bonobo primate was one of the last mammals to be recognized (Lanting 1997). Up until 1929, they were lumped with chimpanzees, their closest known relative and the only primate to share the same genus. The bonobo generally goes by two different names; the “bonobo chimpanzee” and the “pygmy chimpanzee.” One of the reasons they were considered chimpanzees for so long is because they looked like juvenile chimpanzees. Bonobos have long legs and a small head resting on narrow shoulders (De Wall 1995). They also have reddish lips within a black face. Their ears are small and their nostrils are almost as wide as a gorilla’s (De Waal 1995). They have
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However, one notable exception is the bonobo, they use sex for several reasons. These reasons vary from reproduction, female-female bonding, stress, reconciliation, appeasement, and to obtaining food. With all of these and more, it is interesting how they use sex daily in their lives. It is for this reason that they are known to be significantly less aggressive than their closest relative, the chimpanzee. Other than exploring why bonobos use sex, I also want to examine the differences in behavior that is displayed in chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are known to be more aggressive than bonobos and do not use sex in any other way than for
In his peer-reviewed article, “Sexing fossils: a boy named Lucy?,” James Shreeve discusses, in detail, a study on sexual dimorphism and possible speciation in Australopithecines in Hadar, Ethiopia, based on the famous A. afarensis specimen, “Lucy.” In the article, “Lucy’s kind takes humanlike turn,” the author addresses sexual dimorphism and speculates on sex-based differences in behaviors in A. afarensis. The two articles have differences and commonalities with each other in content and both present research methods and conclusions on topics including sexual dimorphism, sex-based behaviors, and speciation in Australopithecines, which receive critical analysis.
Chimpanzees are a lot like humans in their behaviours. They are extremely smart since they are able to make and use tools and weapons. The female mothers are very affectionate and protective over the young and the rest of their family. The young chimps are also very dependant on their mother for necessities such as food, shelter and warmth.
A Primate’s Memoir, written by Robert Sapolsky, documents the author’s time in Kenya while he studied the various behaviors of a troop of baboons. One of the key aspects of the book was the social rank that developed within the troop. Female baboons have a social hierarchy that is fairly cut and dry. The eldest baboons in the troop are considered the higher-ranking females, and as the baboons get younger, so to follows the string of dominance. The ranking for males was essentially from the strongest baboons to the weakest baboons. The baboon at the top of the social hierarchy was considered the alpha male. This social rank has huge implications for the troop in regards to which baboons mated with each other. If another baboon wanted to become the alpha male, then he would have to challenge the current alpha male to a fight, and win. The baboon’s distinct personality mixed with their instincts are the primary factors for where one lands on the social hierarchy. Another key aspect of the book was the strategies that took place when the baboons wanted to mate with another baboon. Similar to humans, the baboon males tried to impress the female baboons in a way that would make them want to mate. The rank of the male is considered to be one of the greatest factors contributing to what mate they end up with, because there is nothing more impressive than becoming a high-ranking baboon. Also, there were instances of lower-ranking baboons strategizing and forming teams with other baboons to become a higher ranking baboon for the mating possibilities. The baboons in the group are considered a patch-work of different troops, as it is common for one baboon to move to different groups frequently.
There are contrasts in tool kits used by different groups of chimpanzees, which seem to be a result of the environment in which they live as well as information that is shared by the group. For example, in 1973 it was reported that chimpanzees in Gombe did not use hammer stones, but those of Cape Palmas did. We will explore the tool use of Chimpanzees from the wild, including Gombe, Tai National Forest, and the Congo Basin---and contrast those with Chimpanzees in captivity in locations of Zoo’s both in the United States and abroad.
They have wide chests and their arms are longer than their legs. Chimpanzees’ hands have four long fingers plus an opposable thumb. Their feet have five toes which includes an opposable big toe. Chimpanzees’ can grasp things with both their hands and their feet. Male chimpanzees are larger than female chimpanzees and are slightly sexually dimorphic. Chimpanzees are quadrupeds that typically walk using the soles of feet and the knuckles of their hands. They sometimes walk upright only when they need to use their arms to carry things but this is a rare occurrence. Chimps are also good at brachiating and climbing trees which is where they spend most of their time even when they sleep. Their dental formula is 2.1.2.3. Chimpanzees’ have y5/x4 molars, making them frugivores, and a diastema to fit their upper canines. Their diet includes fruit, leaves, flowers, seeds, smaller mammals, birds, insects, and grubs. When chimps aren’t resting, they can be very active. I enjoyed watching the Chimpanzees’ swing on the ropes and climb up and down the trees. Chimpanzees are
Primates housed in organizations like zoos and laboratories have developed catastrophic behavior; due to the lack of their natural habitat and the lose of freedom to pursue their own lives. Chimpanzees have directed themself to attempt abnormal and often revolting behavior. During their life in captivity they exibit biting themselves, drinking urine, eating feces, pating genitals, rocking, plucking hair, and fumpling niples (Birkett and Newton-Fisher). Another factor that gives chimpanzees
When it comes to interacting with the environment tool use by chimpanzees is very vital to differentiating their intelligent within their culture. Chimpanzees are some of the very few unique primates that use a variety of tools which makes them stand out as very proficient tool users besides humans. According to David Watts chimpanzees use the tools to enhance their way of living. “Chimpanzees at several well documented sites mostly use tools in extractive foraging, and extractive tool use can substantially increase their foraging efficiency. They also use tools for hygiene and for several other purposes, including attracting the attention of conspecifics, as in leaf-clipping” (Watts 2008, 83). Subsequently chimpanzees are intellectual enough to alter an object to create a tool, and then use the tool for a precise purpose. Then on the other hand chimpanzees use tools to overcome everyday obstacles. As expressed by Watts chimpanzee toolkits mak...
Quiatt, D., & Reynolds, V. (1993). Primate behaviour: information, social knowledge, and the evolution of culture. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press].
Chimpanzees are part of the non-human primate group. Though we share a common ancestor, evolution has pushed us in different directions. However this common ancestor causes humans to be curious about these creatures. As discussed in Jane Goodall’s video Among the Wild Chimpanzees we were once considered to be human because of our use of tools but once we observed these non-human primates using tools, this perception was changed forever. The question now at hand is if having the chimpanzees that we study in captivity makes a difference between studying wild chimps. These interesting creatures can be found naturally in the rainforests of Africa.
Chimpanzees (Figure 1) are the closest living relatives to us, and they share 99 percent of our DNA (1). Chimpanzees have distinct group territoriality. Male chimpanzees “patrol” near the boundary between the two ranges, at that time they move very carefully and quietly, and they can cease to listen and observe the range of their neighbors. Patrolling individuals are likely to face cruel and violent attacks, injuries, and even deaths. Intense excitement and aggressive display can occur if the two parties of two communities encounter each other. Usually, the larger group holds its ground, and interaction between different chimpanzees communities may also lead to gang attack. Expanding the community range is necessary to their social organizations, the males cooperation can defend the territory and increase the reproductive rates of the resident females by excluding female and male competitors. Body contact is common in their social life such as grooming (1). Usually, chimpanzees groom each other as a way to show harmony and solidarity in their society (Figure 2). Grooming each other demonstrates the deep bonds and close relationship between them. In addition, they can even hug, hold hands, touch, kiss each other as a way of emotional expression (2).
World Archaeology, 31:3:329-350. Mitani, J.C. et al 1996 Sexual Dimorphism, the Operational Sex Ratio, and the Intensity of Male Competition in Polygamous Primates. The American Naturalist, 147:6:966-980. Rogers, Alan R. and Arindam Mukherjee 1992 Quantitative Genetics of Sexual Dimorphism in Human Body Size.
Throughout the animal kingdom, a variety of species are known to form polyspecific associations. Polyspecific associations are relationships formed between two or more animal species that result in a mutual benefit for all involved. Examples of such relationships have been seen in invertebrates, fish, birds and mammals, which indicate that this is a widespread behavioral strategy (Rehg, J. A., 2017). A common source of these relationships is among primate species, because polyspecific associations are more common among closely related taxa of animals with similar adaptations and are dependent on one or more species likely another. In the case of primates, most bonds form between organisms within the same family, subfamily, or genus (Rehg, J.
Wilson & Wrangham (2003) states that both species defend their territory but there is no indication of any lethal violence among them. However the bonobos may intermingle with friendly neighbouring bonobo communities, and as they intermingle with other members from different communities, they will groom and copulate without any signs of aggression (Wilson & Wrangham, 2003). Even though both the chimpanzee and bonobos bare their teeth, the bonobos bare their teeth in a friendly and pleasurable context, such as during sexual intercourse, the bonobos will bare their teeth when they feel threatened or their infants are screaming. Or when they are having fun, the bonobos will often have their full teeth-baring making them look like they are laughing which makes them look more human like (De Waal, 1988). The chimpanzees, bonobos and the Yanomamo village are very important to understand when we are relating it to warfare.
One of the most obvious physical differences is in stance humans are bipedal (walk on two legs) while chimpanzees walk on all fours (most of the time there are times where a chimpanzee has walked on two legs but that is not standard). Also some other obvious physical differences are in how hairy chimpanzees are compared to humans and how short they are when compared to
“Closely linked by DNA, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are one of the four species of great apes that are the closest living relatives of humans” (Lkiwaner). In this example, one can see that because of their closely linked DNA to us humans, they are perceived as close relatives to humans. Likewise, when visiting a zoo that had similar species of chimpanzees, they seemed to mind their own business concentrate on what was important to them at that time. They were not species who run around wild but had self control and security even with others knocking on their glass walls. Correspondingly, humans are similar to these act of behaviors as it is important for them to keep their posture and act appropriately without being trained to.