Bilingual Literacy

2.3 Literacy and Deaf children

Literacy is vital for reading and writing of all children, both hearing and deaf. Research has shown that having a strong L1 foundation, it can be applied in learning how to read and write in English. Advocates of bilingual bicultural education agree that the reading and writing skills that are acquired based on the strong foundation of their L1 develops the foundation of L2 (Evans, 2004; Puente et al, 2006). Researches conducted by Padden & Ramsey (2000) show that ASL fingerspelling skills are related to English literacy and vocabulary knowledge (Hile, 2009). One study done by Padden & Ramsey (2000), showed the fingerspelling tasks that were given to thirty-one deaf students in two groups (3rd-4th graders

and 7th-8th graders), the results were compared with their reading comprehension measured from the Stanford Achievement Test-Hearing Impaired (SAT-HI) which showed a significant correlation (Hile, 2009; Padden & Ramsey, 2000). Interesting how the ability to gain new vocabulary through fingerspelling has a substantial impact on their reading vocabulary, however, it is not clear on the direction of the relationship (Hile, 2009). Deaf parents begin literacy practices by reading stories, books, and the use of index cards with English print and encourage their deaf child to fingerspell the words along with the parent who works with them. Early language exposure in ASL has high correlations between ASL and reading (Allen, 2015; Mayberry et al, 2011; Padden & Ramsey, 2000; Prinz & Strong, 1998; Strong & Prinz, 1997).

2.4 Fingerspelling and Literacy
ASL fingerspelling is a vital aspect Deaf family’s use ASL and ASL fingerspelling with their deaf babies and children. That is where their fingerspelling acquisition begins. ASL fingerspelling is a critical part of ASL. ASL fingerspelling is defined and referred as the representation of handshapes of the alphabet. It is a way of borrowing the English words, translating the spoken words into native signs of equivalent meaning (Padden, 2005). Fingerspelling is not only to be used for proper nouns or words in English, but an expansion of ASL vocabulary. Often it is used for abbreviations (i.e. A-P-T), two-word compounds (i.e. Board of Trustees), signed-fingerspelled compounds (i.e. black + M-A-I-L), and lexicalized fingerspelling (i.e. #YES) rather than only for neutral fingerspelling (i.e. Proper nouns or words with no sign equivalent) (Baker, 2010). Previously, researchers thought ASL fingerspelling was just a representation of English orthography (print), but it is more than just being a representation of English (Baker, 2010). It can expand the ASL lexicon. ASL fingerspelling has been reported to support deaf children’s literacy skills, particularly decoding skills and vocabulary development. (Haptonstall-Nykaza, T. S., & Schick, B., 2007; Humphries, T., & MacDougall, F., 2000; Williams, Darcy, & Newman, 2015). ASL fingerspelling does contribute to deaf children’s successes in reading and writing in English. As Don Grushkin (1998) stated that it provides a linguistic link to English vocabulary and syntax (Baker, 2010). In the recent years, there has been a significant interest in how ASL fingerspelling contributes to the development of literacy in reading and writing. The authors, Strong and Prinz, (2000) in their research demonstrated that there was a significant relationship between ASL and English literacy. The development of literacy in reading and writing demonstrates a connection between ASL fingerspelling skills and reading abilities (Haptonstall-Nykaza and Schick 2007; Hile 2009; Padden 2006; Padden & Ramsey 2000; Puente, Alvarado, and Herrera 2006). Deaf children in signing homes develop literacy skills while acquiring fingerspelling (Padden, 2006). There is an academic research confirming that acquiring ASL and fingerspelling as their native language, the children do better and ready when they begin school than those who do not acquire ASL/fingerspelling early. It makes a difference in their early linguistic simulation (Cummins, 2006; Prinz & Strong, 1998). Case studies on the research on fingerspelling development (Akamatsu, 1982; Blumenthal-Kelly, 1995; Hile, 2009; Padden, 1991; Padden & LeMaster, 1985) show that the development of fingerspelling is surrounded within the context of deaf children’s growth of ASL when at home with deaf parents who practice literacy as well as during classroom instruction (Akamatsu, 1982; Blumenthal-Kelly, 1995; Padden & Ramsey, 2000). Acquisition of fingerspelling as part of language acquisition is important for young deaf children (Padden & LeMaster, 1985). It shows that early fingerspelling in ASL has two sets of skills. The first set the deaf child will learn that fingerspelled words as a whole set before making the connections between the fingerspelled words and English text, then when they emerge in reading and writing English, it becomes noticeable (Blumenthal-Kelly, 1995; Padden, 1991; Padden & LeMaster, 1985). The second set is that deaf children will make connections between the fingerspelled handshapes to the English alphabet, then links both in a written form (Padden, 2006). These two sets of skills as research show the pattern of fingerspelling acquisition for deaf children early, that is when they are exposed to ASL and fingerspelling at an early age especially those from deaf families. They perform higher on reading achievement tests (Padden & Ramsey, 2000). According to research studies, the first early attempts in fingerspelling of a deaf child of deaf parents appear around the age of 13 months old (Akamatsu, 1982; Blumenthal-Kelly, 1995; Erting et al, 2000; Hile, 2009; Padden, 1991; Padden & LeMaster, 1985). Deaf parents use strategies to teach their deaf child the relationships between ASL, ASL fingerspelling and print in English (Erting et al, 2000; Hile, 2009; Padden, 1991). ASL fingerspelling strategies used by deaf parents are called “sandwiching” and “chaining”. With the “sandwiching” strategy is when the parent fingerspells the word first, then, signs it, and ends with fingerspelling the word again. The other ASL fingerspelling strategy, “chaining”, which is when there is an English word on a card, a board, or the word is displayed in the book/story, the teacher fingerspells the word, then show the sign and then fingerspell the word again. Deaf parents use ASL fingerspelling when providing name signs with emphasis on using fingerspelling how the name is spelled. This is how the demonstration is practiced to show how they are promoting their deaf child’s development in signing, fingerspelling and literacy before their child begins school. Sandwiching and chaining are common strategies used in the homes when signing is used.
Often times fingerspelling is not emphasized heavily in the classrooms of public preschools and elementary schools for deaf children if the program does not use the bilingual bicultural education philosophy (Akamatsu & Stewart, 1989; Grushkin, 1998; Hile, 2009; Humphries & MacDougall, 2000; Padden & Ramsey, 2000).

Padden & Ramsey (2000) mentioned that these teachers who are native in ASL tend to use more fingerspelling than the teachers who use ASL as a second language. Many native ASL users who teach deaf children teach in a residential school or are deaf themselves. With the cultural and literacy perspectives, ASL fingerspelling is an essential skill to incorporate daily in the classroom (Hile, 2009). ASL fingerspelling in the classroom during instruction provides another alternative, bridging ASL fingerspelling in learning to read and write. ASL fingerspelling is one of the outcomes of the contact between ASL and English (Blumenthal-Kelly, 1995; Padden & Ramsey, 2000). Studies show that fingerspelling skills are predictive of English vocabulary skills and the development of learning to fingerspell (Haptonstall-Nykasza & Schick, 2007; Hile, 2009; Mayberry & Waters, 1987). By the time deaf children from deaf families begin preschool, they have already been exposed to ASL fingerspelling from birth know what words need to use fingerspelling such as names of individuals, brand names, proper nouns, etc. (Padden, 2006). Many views ASL fingerspelling as the means to communicate using proper nouns such as names of the individuals, months, places, and brand names as well as the English words that do not have sign equivalent (Hile, 2009). It is used in different ways and also links the fingerspelled handshapes with the English alphabet in a written form (Hile, 2009; Padden, 1998). Then when they enter elementary school, they are knowledgeable in developing and make connections of how fingerspelling represents printed English (Hile, 2009). When teachers use

strategies in the classroom during instruction by showing the relationship between the sign, word, and fingerspelled word, deaf children develop the connection. When the deaf children are exposed to new fingerspelled words and continue the use of fingerspelling by the teacher, it appears to play an important role in their vocabulary and language acquisition (English) as well as a bridge to develop their literacy skills (Hile, 2009).