characterization of crystalline materials and the determination of their structure. Each crystalline solid has its unique X-ray powder pattern which may be used as a clue for its identification. Once the material has been identified, X-ray crystallography may be used to determine its structure, for instance how the atoms pack together in a crystalline state and what the distance and angle between the atoms are. We can determine the size and shape of a unit cell for any compound most easily
1. INTRODUCTION Crystallization is an essential technique in pharmaceutical manufacturing since most of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) are available in a solid form1. It plays an important role in marketing, manufacturing, and including interaction with excipients in the crystalline state2. The physical properties of the active pharmaceutical ingredients such as crystalline form, morphology and particle size distribution will strongly affect the solubility and bioavailability of a solid
A propellant is used in the military application and it is consists of oxidizer, fuel, plasticizer, curing agent and cross linkers. The commonly used oxidizer is ammonium perchlorate. But its combustion products are environmentally hazardous. Nowadays, ammonium nitrate is gaining great attraction in the field of propellant as a great oxidizer. Ammonium nitrate is an inorganic compound used as fertilizer, oxidizer and also for other applications. AN combined with fuel can be used in gas generators
In the future, people will have lightning fast computers and a new kind of phone. All of their new electronics will have crystals in their construction somewhere. From microchips with super-storage or photon-processing crystals, crystals will be everywhere. And they already are. Crystals are used in color changing paint and even in the touch screen of smartphones. Many famous scientists are researching crystals and how they could be used. Crystals are natural wonders of nature that are built
Physical properties of compounds remain an interesting and important area of research since last century. Various physical properties of a compound are depending on vibrations of atoms present in it. Lattice dynamics is considered to be an important tool in studying these atomic vibrations. Lattice dynamical study of a compound gives information about the nature of inter-atomic forces present and helps to understand its bonding and structural properties. Raman and IR spectral studies is an important
Vibration Crystal therapy works on the premise that everything is vibration. Imagine your body as an orchestra, with all the different organs and parts represented by instruments. Ideally, the orchestra should be playing in perfect harmony When illness, stress and emotional difficulties disrupt this harmony, crystals act as a ‘tuning fork’ to bring the different parts of your being back into balance. As Sue and Simon Lilly put it in ‘Crystal Doorways’, ‘Crystals reflect the basic harmonies of matter…using
Introduction X-ray diffraction is an analytical technique looking at X-ray scattering from crystalline materials. Each material produces a unique X-ray "fingerprint" of X-ray intensity versus scattering angle that is characteristic of its crystalline atomic structure. Qualitative analysis is possible by comparing the XRD pattern of an unknown material to a library of known patterns. The three-dimensional structure of non-amorphous materials is defined by regular, repeating planes of atoms that form
Zirconia has three crystalline forms: monoclinic phase, tetragonal phase and cubic phase. Monoclinic phase exists in zirconia stable up to temperature 1170˚C. Above 1170˚C, the monoclinic phase transforms to tetragonal phase and further transform to cubic phase above 2370˚C. While cooling down below 1070˚C, tetragonal phase becomes unstable and start transformation of monoclinic phase. Thus tetragonal phase is hard to exist at the room temperature. As tetragonal phase has high toughness and high
What is a crystal? Crystals are made up of elements which form amd there molecules form a certain pattern. For example, a volcano happens to erupts and magma flows out to the surface of the earth As the magma runs outward then slowly starts to cool. crystals may develop. This is call crystallization. From this occurring expensive crystal like rubies and diamonds are form, sometimes even emeralds. Crystals can have many different shape from the result of the type of molecules and atoms present
Paragraph 1 (Compare and contrast the crystal structures and crystal chemistry of quartz, α-FePO4 and β-FePO4. Fully describes the crystallochemical relationships between the structures and the temperature dependence of polymorphism. ) This article focuses on the chemical structure of FePO4 between 294K and 1073K of thermodynamic scale, through high accuracy x-ray diffraction experiments. From the relatively lower temperature range, it acquires the chemical arrangement of an α-Quartz trigonal
WHAT IS AIDS? AIDS stand for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ACQUIRED, how? The blood, vaginal fluid, semen, and breast milk of people with the AIDS virus contains enough of the virus to transmit it to another person. Most people who have acquired the AIDS virus have done so by having sex with an infected person, sharing a needle with one, or being born to a mother who is infected. IMMUNE DEFICIENCY? Catching the AIDS virus can be lethal because it affects the immune system, which is
Biography Dorothy Hodgkin, also known as Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin and born as Dorothy Mary Hodgkin was a British Biochemist. She was born on May 12, 1910, and died July 29, 1994. (84 years old) Dorothy was born on May 12, 1910, in Cairo, Egypt to her father, John Winter Crowfoot and her mother Grace Mary Crowfoot. Her parents were both archaeologists which were safe to assume inspired her to what she became. Of the four children that Dorothy’s parents had, Dorothy was the oldest of the bunch. While
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique was employed extensively through want this study to examine and obtain images of prepared samples. The associated analytical facility of Energy dispersive X-Ray (EDX) analysis was used to identify and quantify the elemental composition of the prepare samples. These different techniques are essentially part of one instrument. The EDX facility (an X-Ray detector and associated software) is incorporated intimately as part of the SEM itself. The EDX facility
1) Achievement of supersaturation or supercooling 2) Formation of crystal nuclei 3) Successive growth of crystals to get distinct faces Ostwald’s Diagram Ostwald was appeared to be the first to explain the relationship between supersaturation and spontaneous crystallization. The relationship between the concentration and temperature is schematically shown in Figure 1. Extensive research has been carried out to explain the relationship between supersaturation and spontaneous crystallization
In the post-Modernist world, developments in the sciences overshadow human relationships. To bridge humankind’s alienation from science and technology, Christian Bök turns science into poetry, and poetry into science. He delves into “pataphysics,” the poetics of an imaginary science which renders the English language whimsical and at times nonsensical. He also attempts virtuosic feats with his sound and concrete poetry. Bök’s language welcomes new interpretations and shows that poetry is an ongoing
The Double Helix by James Watson is his personal reflection on discovering the structure of the DNA molecule. With contributions of other scientists, James Watson and Francis Crick were able to solve the structure of DNA. Through contributions and integral relationships of Watson and Crick to Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin, Linus Pauling, and other smaller contributors the DNA structure was finally solved. The first and primary contribution to solving the DNA structure was the relationship of
that made up of 153 amino acid and ahs a size of 18 kDa. Its three-dimensional structure was first determined by X-ray crystallography by John Kendrew in 1957. Myoglobin is a typical globular protein in that it is a highly folded compact structure with most of the hydrophobic amino acid residues buried in the interior and many of the polar residues on the surface. X-ray crystallography revealed that the single polypeptide chain of myoglobin consist of entirely of eight (labelled A-H) alpha-helical. Within
With her skills, knowledge and experience Franklin was able to improve the X-ray crystallography unit in the college. While working with a student, Raymond Gosling in the laboratory she discovered that there were two forms of DNA. Franklin took high quality photos of crystallised DNA fibres. There were two forms of the fibres, ‘A’ form was
sometimes felt that there was still an “elite boy’s club” culture established by the lack of female scientists. This feeling only got worse when, after being over-exposed to x-rays, she decided to move back to England to continue her work in crystallography. She was offered a position at the King’s College, where she was put down and subordinated by the men in the laboratory, especially Maurice Wilkins, who was in conflict with her over who was in charge. This was due to miscommunication and most
Excellent university education is one of the most important ingredients for a successful career. With the increase in expectations for skills and higher education, the number of students enrolling for university education is increasing every year. Students enroll to university with high career aspirations and work hard in order to achieve excellent academic ranks. A role of a university teacher at such times is extremely crucial who can help students understand the subject and more importantly design