Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD) are the currently the leading cause of death globally for both men and women accounting for 21.9 per cent of total deaths and is projected to increase to 26.3 per cent by 2030 . Statins are the treatment of choice for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease and in the management of hypercholesterolaemia because of their proven efficacy and safety profile. Evidences are showing their effectiveness in reduction of cholesterol synthesis and number of pleiotropic effects, which may be cholesterol dependent and cholesterol independent. The present review focus on the origin, properties and effects of statins on endothelial function ( non lipid action of statins) through the increase of endogenous production of NO in different pathways.
Key words: Coronary artery Disease (CAD), Statins, Endothelium, Caveolin.
Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the most common type of multifactorial chronic heart disease. It is a consequence of plaque buildup in coronary arteries. The arterial blood vessels, which begin out smooth and elastic become narrow and rigid, curtailing blood flow resulting in deprived of oxygen and nutrients to the heart [1].
CAD is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the worldwide. The prevalence of biological and metabolic risk factors were also found to be high in development of coronary artery disease. Patients with hypercholesterolemia are at increased risk to experience cardiovascular events and to die from vascular disease [2]. .Statins, among the most commonly prescribed drugs worldwide, are cholesterol let downing agents used to manage cardiovascular and coronary heart diseases and to treat hypercholesterolemia. Statin’s therapy ...
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...on and forms an inhibitory complex with caveolin-1 leads to decrease in activity of enzyme in the cells. Transcription of Cav-1 gene is regulated by cholesterol responsive elements. Exposure of fibroblast and endothelial cells to free cholesterol and LDL Cholesterol was found to up regulate Cav-1 expression. Ca+2 mobilizing agents cause disinhibiton of e NOS by promoting Ca+2/Calmodulin triggered dissociation of Cav-1.
Statin downregulates Cav-1 in endothelial cells by blocking the cholesterol synthesis, a favorable effect on vascular function may partly mediated by interruption of the e NOS/Cav-1 complex [24].
Conclusion
In summary, accumulating evidence from various research and clinical trials indicates that Statin have pleiotropic effects, and improves the endothelial function through the increase of endogenous production of NO in different pathways.
Nitric oxide is a gaseous, diatomic molecule that plays an important role as a mediator of cardiac function, working largely as a vasodilator in the cardiovascular system. Nitric oxide is synthesized by a family of enzymes known as nitric oxide synthases (...
...s to interfere with bonding to the receptors. The final possibility uses CNP, which downregulates the activation in MAP kinase pathways in the chondrocytes (4).
Teupser D, Pavlides S, Tan M, Gutierrez-Ramos JC, Kolbeck R, & Breslow JL. (2004). Major reduction of atherosclerosis in fractalkine (CX3CL1)-deficient mice is at the brachiocephalic artery, not the aortic root. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101, 17795-800.
Atherosclerosis begins when the inner wall of the artery becomes damaged and cholesterol and fatty plaques begin to lodge in the arteries. Damage to the endothelial wall inside the artery can be caused by hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and hyperglycemia (“Subclinical Atherosclerosis..” 443). When this happens, the immune system responds by sending monocytes to the damaged area. The monocytes turn into macrophages; their job is to eat up the excess cholesterol and unblock the artery. The macrophages are unable to digest all of the cholesterol, and as a result turn in to foam cells. When many macrophages are turned into foam cells, plaque results, and protrudes into the arterial wall, restricting blood flow and raising blood pressure (“Atherosclerosis Growth Process.” 8). If the plaque becomes too large it may break, releasing plaque into the blood. This can cause a great reduction in blood flow or a clot, resulting in stroke or myocardial infarction (“Stroke Risk.” 3).
Edrophonium is a competitive inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) [1]. AChE is an extrinsic membrane-hound enzyme that functions in the central and peripheral nervous systems. AChE rapidly terminates the ACh receptor-mediated signal transmission by hydrolyzing Ach. Inhibition of AChE results in accumulation of ACh in the synaptic cleft and leads to impeded neurotransmission [2].
Cardiovascular disease is currently the leading cause of death in the United States. It is responsible for one in four deaths every year, about 600,000 mortalities. This disease affects men and women, as well as every ethnic group. Coronary artery disease is the most common cardiovascular disease, representing approximately 400,000 deaths per year of the aforementioned 600,000 total deaths from cardiovascular diseases as a whole. In 2010 alone, coronary artery disease cost the United States $108.9 billion for health care services, medication, and lost productivity. These chilling statistics, published every year by the American Medical Association, demonstrate the immediate need for new and innovative ways to prevent, detect, and treat coronary heart disease. This paper will explore the molecular biology behind the disease while explaining the current treatments and prevention that are available today, why they work and what can be done to improve them.
CHD is primarily due to atherosclerosis, which is the blockage of blood flow in the arteries due to the accumulation of fats, cholesterol, calcium and other substances found in the blood. Atherosclerosis takes place over many years, but when the blood flow becomes so limited due to the build up of plaque in the arteries, there becomes a serious problem. “When...
The cell plasma membrane, a bilayer structure composed mainly of phospholipids, is characterized by its fluidity. Membrane fluidity, as well as being affected by lipid and protein composition and temperature (Purdy et al. 2005), is regulated by its cholesterol concentration (Harby 2001, McLaurin 2002). Cholesterol is a special type of lipid, known as a steroid, formed by a polar OH headgroup and a single hydrocarbon tail (Wikipedia 2005, Diwan 2005). Like its fellow membrane lipids, cholesterol arranges itself in the same direction; its polar head is lined up with the polar headgroups of the phospholipid molecules (Spurger 2002). The stiffening and decreasing permeability of the bilayer that results from including cholesterol occurs due to its placement; the short, rigid molecules fit neatly into the gaps between phospholipids left due to the bends in their hydrocarbon tails (Alberts et al. 2004). Increased fluidity of the bilayer is a result of these bends or kinks affecting how closely the phospholipids can pack together (Alberts et al. 2004). Consequently, adding cholesterol molecules into the gaps between them disrupts the close packing of the phospholipids, resulting in the decreased membrane fluidity (Yehuda et al. 2002).
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Thompson, P. D., Buchner, D., Pina, I. L., Balady, G. J., Williams, M. A., Marcus, B. H., ... Wenger, N. K. (2003). Exercise in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology. Journal of the American Heart Association, 3110-3116. http://dx.doi.org/doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000075572.40158.77
Cardiovascular disease is currently the nation’s leading non-communicable cause of morbidity and mortality. According to the American Heart Association, the most common form of cardiovascular disease is coronary artery disease, a condition in which the heart’s blood supply is reduced due to a narrowing of the coronary arteries. These arteries play a significant role in regulating the flow of oxygenated blood to the heart. As blood circulates through the arteries, it exerts a force against the vessel walls, known as blood pressure. To withstand this pressure, elastic fibers interspersed along the artery walls allow the arteries to expand and recoil. Abnormally high blood pressure, however, will cause these muscles to thicken as a result of tears in the damaged artery walls trapping particles that aggregate as plaque. Progressive build-up of plaque ultimately leads to a narrowing of the arteries, subsequently diminishing blood flow to the heart and other body organs. This cascade of events triggered by high blood pressure illustrates why hypertension is one of the most important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Affecting 1 in every 3 adults in the United States alone, hypertension substantially raises the risk for heart disease in an affected individual who, most likely, does not show any signs or symptoms. In addition to the risks associated with this “silent killer,” comorbidities such as obesity, diabetes, and high cholesterol can drastically worsen health outcomes in hypertensive patients. Given the high prevalence and severe consequences of hypertension if undetected, researching this particular topic will increase our understanding of the causes of hypertension by identifying and narrowing down lead candidates for pot...
Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the number one killer in America, affecting more than 13 million people. CAD occurs when a fatty substance called plaque builds up in the coronary arteries. These arteries disperse oxygen-ric...
Heart disease describes a range of conditions that affect your heart. Diseases under the heart disease umbrella include blood vessel diseases, heart rhythm problems, and heart defects. The major cause of this is a build-up of fatty plaques in the arteries. Plaque build-up thickens and stiffens the vessel walls, which can inhibit blood flow through the arteries to organs and tissues.
The arteries supply blood rich in oxygen to the body, the veins direct deoxygenated blood from the capillaries back to the heart. These roles make up the circulatory function. Blood flow through these blood vessels can be disrupted resulting in peripheral vascular diseases. These diseases occur as a result of narrowing or blocking of the blood vessels. The risk factors of peripheral vascular diseases include diabetes, smoking, high level of cholesterol, overweight, high blood pressure etc. these risk factors result to aneurysms, Raynaud’s diseases, Buerger’s disease, renal artery disease etc. With this diseases, the peripheral vascular system should be assessed to enable nurses and other health personnel make good
Cardiovascular diseases particularly myocardial toxicity is one of the leading causes of mortality. Risk factors for cardiovascular diseases are many, like hypertension, atherosclerosis, drugs like doxorubicin & catecholamines like isoproterenol, isoprenaline etc (Gupta et al., 2004).