Unit 2 C. Principles of Pharmacokinetics Objective 1: Define bioavailability and describe factors that can alter absorption. Bioavailability is the fraction of the dosage form that reaches systemic circulation after any route of administration. In this particular study, acetaminophen was administered orally, intravenously, and rectally in healthy men aged 18 to 45 and the pharmacokinetic parameters were compared for each route. The study assumed IV bioavailability to be 100%. The bioavailability of the oral dose was 89% and 72% for the rectal dose. Drug interactions, intestinal motility, gastric pH, and stomach emptying can all alter absorption. In this study, there were key exclusion criteria implemented to try to minimize the risk of these factors influencing the results. For example, this study was limited to healthy males weighing at least 50 kilograms and testing negative for any immunodeficiencies. This would ideally eliminate factors that can alter absorption like any disease states. All participants were also non-smokers. Some studies have shown that chronic smoking can increase acid secretion in the stomach, so by eliminating smokers from this study the chance that gastric pH affecting the results was minimized. Lastly, the use of any medications or supplements in the 7 days prior to the first dose of acetaminophen administered was not allowed. In addition, during the 3 day length of the study, no other medications were allowed to be administered. These factors together removed the chance of drug interactions affecting the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen. Objective 2: Explain the relationship between clearance and half-life. Clearance is the removal of drug from the body and half-life is the amount of time it takes t... ... middle of paper ... ...were decreased. When given with probenecid, unchanged paracetamol concentration was significantly higher than when administered without probenecid. This is because probenecid inhibits UDPG-transferase. UDPG-tranferase is a key enzyme that is responsible for phase 2 conjugation, so if inhibited, less paracetamol will be converted into its metabolite paracetamol glucuronide. This is why clearance of that metabolite is decreased when the drugs are taken concurrently. Renal elimination was decreased for both paracetamol metabolites because probenecid inhibits the active transport process in the kidneys that causes metabolite secretion into the tubules. Because paracetamol metabolism is reduced when taken with probenecid, there is the potential for adverse effects. More of the active parent form of the drug in the body can lead to potential hepatotoxicity in patients.
Attention: The commercial grabs the viewers’ attention because the viewer will want to know which product works faster to remove unwanted stains. It also uses music and a little humor.
17). Dowieko (2015) points out that “methods of administration and routes of administration are important factors that affect the user experience” (p.17). There are thirteen different ways that a compound can be introduced to the body (Kamienski and Keogy (2006), Doweiko, 2015, p. 17). Compounds administered by the “enteral method enter the body by the gastrointestinal tract ”(Brody, 1994, Dowieko ,2015, p. 17). “Compounds administered by the parenteral method of drug administration involves the injection of a compound directly into the body” (Dowieko, 2015,
If the drug is being used primarily to treat severe pain not responsive to other analgesics, in a painful terminal condition, (such as advanced widespread cancer), it may ...
Viagra is taken orally. It is quickly absorbed into the system and usually reaches its peak concentration in about 30 to 120 minutes. However, as with most orally administered drugs, taking the pill on a full stomach will slow down its absorption (Sildenafil Citrate, par. 5). Viagra is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome p450 system. It is converted into a metabolite that has properties similar to that of the pre-metabolized drug. Viagra and its metabolite have a "terminal half-life of about 4 hours" (Sildenafil Citrate, par. 4). Finally, Viagra is excreted primarily through feces in the form of metabolites (Sildenafil Citrate, par. 7).
be absorbed. PCP can be snorted or inhaled, put in a pill form and swallowed,
Acetaminophen is ingested orally and is rapidly and completely absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract. It works in about one hour. The liver detoxifies 90% of it by mixing it with sulfuric acid, and another 3-5% is catabolized by enzyme reactions to the acid. The metabolites are excreted in the urine.
...blood and increase the absorption and concentration of digoxin in the blood. This may reduce the effectiveness of ketoconazole or increase digoxin toxicity. Through unknown mechanisms, omeprazole may increase blood levels of saquinavir and reduce blood levels of nelfinavir and atazanavir, drugs that are used for treating patients with infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Omeprazole can be contraindicated in patient with hepatic impairment thus doctors are advised not to prescribe more than 20mg daily of omeprazole for such patients. [1] [3] [4]
Adverse drug events or medication errors that result from polypharmacy can often be difficult to predict and prevent. According to an article posted in the American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy (2012), drug –drug interactions may lead to increased toxicity levels when taken together. An example is the interactio...
Paracetamol (Acetaminophen): “Decreased effectiveness of diuretic (Furosemide) because acetaminophen may decrease renal prostaglandin excretion and decrease plasma renin activity”(Woo & Wynne, 2011, p. 891).
...d a gap in the number of studies conducted regarding this issue. From the studies reviewed, the results demonstrate that the increasingly health related issue of polypharmacy among the elderly requires the immediate attention of health care professionals. The studies revealed that in conjunction with medication reviews (brown bag), the STOPP criteria is a tool in which can be effective in detecting PIMs. The studies also revealed that nurses are in the position to address and assess for adverse drug reactions associated with polypharmacy by utilizing the “brown bag”, medication review, and STOPP criteria. Regarding the PICO question, the results of these studies support the essential need of medication reviews to be implemented by nurses and healthcare professionals at every provider visit to reduce the risk of polypharmacy and its associated adverse reactions.
Polypharmacy among the elderly is a growing concern in U.S. healthcare system. Elderly who have comorbities and take multiple medications are at a higher risk for potential adverse drug reactions. Elderly who take over-the-counter medications, herbs, and supplements without consulting their physician are at risk for adverse reactions associated with polypharmacy. Polypharmacy can result from patients having multiple prescribers and pharmacies, and patients who continue to take medications which have been discontinued by the physician. There is a great need for nursing interventions regarding polypharmacy, including medication reviews also known as “brown bag”. As nurses obtain history data and conduct a patient assessment, it is essential to review the patients’ medications and ask open-ended questions regarding all types of medications in which the patient is taking. In addition, the patient assessment is also an opportunity for the nurse to inquire about any adverse reactions the patient may be experiencing resulting from medications. Nurses are in a unique position to provide early detection and intervention for potentially inappropriate medications and its associated adverse drug reactions.
The ability to become reflective in practice has become a necessary skill for health professionals. This is to ensure that health professionals are continuing with their daily learning and improving their practice. Reflective practice plays a big part in healthcare today and is becoming increasingly noticed.
Analysis of Aspirin Tablets Aim --- To discover the percentage of acetylsalicylic acid in a sample of aspirin tablets. ----------------------------------------------------------------- In order to do this, the amount of moles that react with the sodium hydroxide must be known. This is achieved by using the method of back titration.
Pharmacists often work together in a team with other healthcare professional like physicians and nurses. In the process, pharmacists will give advice to them on the selection of medication, by providing the evidences based on the dosage form, the side effects and possible interaction with food of the medication. On the other hand, pharmacists also take part in research and clinical studies. Recently, pharmacists are recruited to conduct pharmacy-based research in pharmacies. (Swanson, 2005)