CHAPTER 2 Literature Review
2.1 Gracilaria manilaensis seaweed
The taxonomic classification of agarophytes in the class of Florideophyceae is divided into three order which are Gelidiaceae, Gracilariales and Ahnfeltiacea.
Scientific classification of Gracilaria manilanesis:
Empire: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Rhodophyta
Class: Florideophyceae
Order: Gracilariales
Family: Gracilariaceae
Genus: Glacilaria
Species: Glacilaria manilaensis
Sources: Yamamoto and Trono, 1994.
Red algae such as Gracilaria seaweed is one of the abundant seaweed in Malaysia and is widely cultured from which the agar or carrageenan are extracted for food industry application and used as the tissue culture media. (Glickman, 1987; Jahara and Phang, 1990).
According to the McHugh…., Gracilaria seaweed produces the most amount of agar in the world which is 53% compared to Gelidium seaweed.
Proximate composition Percentage (%)
Moisture 88.88 ± 0.63
Protein 10.77 ± 0.26
Fat 0.920 ± 0.007
Ash 13.17 ± 0.32
Carbohydrate 45.92 ± 3.99
Table…..: The proximate composition of Gracilaria manilaensis (Salmi et al. 2012)
2.2 Ulva lactuca seaweed
Ulva lactuca is commonly known as sea lettuce. Ulva lactuca may appear as flat, thin, broad and round or oval shape without true root. The characteristic of Ulva lactuca are blade- shaped frond, two-cell thick with no tissue differentiation but the cell wall are rich in polysaccharide. (Bobin-Dubigeon et al. 1997).
Green algae contains approximately 11% of protein, 36% of carbohydrate, 53% of ash and are rich amount of minerals. (Castro-Gonzalez et al. 1996)
Ulvan is a sulphated polysaccharides in the cell wall of Ulva spp and it consists of glucuronic acid and sulphated rhamnose. (Ray and Lahaye, 1995). Ulvan...
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...ontaminated to the microbiological deterioration typically mold, thus shorter its shelf-life.
Fish is prone to the oxidation which will give off-flavor, changes in the color, texture and nutritional value. (Rabia et al. 2008). According to the Huss.1993, off-flavours and off-odors, formation of slime layer, gas production, discoloration and changes in the texture are the signs of spoilage for fish and fish products. This is due to the combination factors of microbiological, chemical and autolytic.
The spoilage of the fish and fish products is mainly due to the action of bacteria. The specific spoilage organism (SSO) are the producers of the metabolites responsible for the off-odours and off-flavors associated with the spoilage.
The microbial load in keropok lekor may originate from many sources.
Boiling process reduces the microbial load of the keropok lekor.
Few members of the sedge family hold economic importance as crop plants, but throughout the world these plants hold great regional importance in weaving mats, baskets, screens, and even sandals (3). Though not normally grown for crops sedges do hold economic importance to agriculture. A substantial amount of sedges are noxious weeds, invading crop fields in all climates of the world. These include species that invade rice paddies, grazing pastures, as well as others (3.) Sedges do however have a considerable amount of ecological importance. They are of extreme importance to primary production as well as an integral part of the hydrologic cycle (3.) C. papyrus is an aquatic plant that has woody, bluntly triangular stems and grows up to about 15 feet in quietly flowing water up to three feet deep and the stem can grow up to six centimeters in width near the top (4). While the bottom portion of the stem can be up to six inches in width (7). The stem has scattered vascular bundles and no inner pith, like other typical monocots. The stem is composed of cellulose (54-68%) and lignin (24-32%), this helps to provide support for the stem and subsequently helps maintain the plant structure. There are also air ducts in the stem to help the plant stay buoyant; this is an important adaptation since C. papyrus grows in wet conditions (1). The roots, which are rhizomes, spread over the water, forming floating mat. These mats can sometimes break apart allowing the plant to colonize new areas in rivers and lakes. This can sometimes cause problems for shipping vessel (1).
Rabbit tobacco is also known as lasting, everlasting, sweet balsam, white balsam, feather-weed, and sweet cudweed. Its scientific name is Gaphalium obtusifolium. These annual herbs reach a height of 1 to 3 feet and have erect stems with brown, shriveled leaves persisting into winter and stems covered with felt-like hairs in summer. The leaves are 1 to 3 inches long, and alternate. The flowers, minute in whitish heads, appear in late summer to fall. Fields, pastures, and disturbed areas are the sites of this common native plant of the eastern United States. The Cherokee named it rabbit tobacco because they believe it was the rabbit who took attended the plant.
The type of artificial light and type of fish food given to a fish can also impact the pigmentation and coloration of the fish.
Simple epithelia: Epithelia tissue can have cell shapes these are the Columnar, Cuboidal, and Squamous Cell Shapes. All this cells shapes are part of a type of an epithelia tissue which is the simple Epithelia. There are columnar cells, which means column-like cells and squamous cells, which are flattened and scale-like cells, simple squamous epithelia is found in walls of lung alveoli, blood capillaries and bowman’s
Echinacea is a flowering plant that can be found all over the United States and Canada. With nine varieties, Echinacea also goes by other names, including black-eyed Susan and purple coneflower.
One of the sectors facing the largest impact is the seafood industry. Fish products are prevalent in pet food products as well as human diets. Given such a high demand on the seafood industry,
Fish protein has been a mainstay for the human diet for centuries. However, aquaculture, which is the practice of raising fish such as salmon in controlled conditions, as opposed to the commercial fishing industry, which is procurement of wild fish from their natural environment, made its debut in the United States as a commercial enterprise in the late 1970’s according to the Eco - Justice Marketplace Project.(n.d.). This mode of salmon procurement began to develop in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, as a response to the declining populations of native wild fish such as salmon and trout.
Janick. J. (2011). Center for New Crops & Plant Products - Department of Horticulture and
...ulose will be protected from anything that could potentially damage the cell otherwise. It also plays a part in helping cells keep their shape. Cell walls, along with cellulose, provide support for plants so that they can grow tall while maintaining their shape. The size of the plant will determine the amount of cellulose it will need, but all plants require some amount of it and make use of it constantly.
Canned tuna quickly grew into one of the most popular seafood products in the United States due to low cost, and its source of protein; making it number two in the top ten consumed sea food products (Campling et al. 2007). Harvesting of the canned Tuna species has raised significant ecological issues and concerns related with economic and environmental sustainability (WWF n.p).
...us. According to the Missouri Botanical Garden this plant is from southern Mexico. It is a epiphyte and is adapted to the very dry environment of the forest canopy. Bone fish cactuses are spineless. The branches look like leaves but are actually a special stem. This plan blooms for just a few nights each year. Its blooms are a fragrant pale yellow. Then there is also gnetum. This is a vine plant. It does not bloom. Gnetum is one of the gymnosperms or vascular plants that bear exposed seeds. There are many other gymnosperms like cycads, gingkos, and conifers. Gnetum is a vine and has large leaves(mbgnet.net).
Spirulina is the superfood that started a revolution. It is a powder created from algae. It is not a herb, but it behaves in much the same way. The algae is loaded with antioxidants, vitamins, and other healthy nutrients. It is a powerful, organic source of:
spoilage. To keep the food from spoiling, usually in only a few days, it is
Seagrass is on the decline around the world and it is an extremely vital marine ecosystem found in shallow water mainly distributed throughout tropical seas, from a temperature around 4oC to 24oC (Green and Short 2003). They are the only true flowering plant (angiosperm) to live in aquatic conditions providing support and shelter for vast amounts of species (Orth et al. 2006; Jackson et al. 2001). They are a marine aquatic plant and a keystone species for many coastal areas found all over the world (Libralato, Christensen and Pauly 2006). Although there is not a huge variety of species, there are only around 60 species globally and over 14% of them are endangered (Green and Short 2003; Orth et al. 2006). The different seagrass ecosystems perform relatively similarly throughout the varying species (Turner and Schwarz 2006). This study will examine the various importances of seagrass and to what extent they are vital for the survival of species within their ecosystem. In addition to this, the role of seagrass in important ecosystem processes will be examined. The abundance of coastal regions are closely linked with seagrasses as they greatly contribute to productivity. Seagrass meadows are highly productive and are ideal for nurseries and providing a relatively safe habitat and shelter from predators (Hughes et al. (2008).