What Caused the Cuban Revolution?

Among the most significant movements in modern history, the Cuban Revolution that lasted from mid-1953 to January 1, 1959 turned the country into a communist regime from a despotic military dictatorship. Due to its colonial past, the nation dealt with its fair share of issues ranging from poverty to corruption. The mismanagement of Cuba would reach a fever pitch under its dictator Fulgencio Batista—a former president that would grab power forcefully in a coup d’état in March 1952. Following the forceful dismissal of the existing government and the abolishment of elections, rebels would rise across the country to battle the draconian regime to re-establish the status quo. While there are numerous causes of the Cuban Revolution and multiple events that led up to the movement as we know it, few of them stand out in particular. The revolution would eventually become the cause for significant events in world history, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis and widespread Cuban immigration into the United States.

A Brief History of the Cuban Republic and Its Lead-Up to the Revolution

Cuba remained a Spanish colony until December 10, 1898, when the peace treaty between the United States and Spain was signed. The latter agreed to give up the territories of Guam, Cuba, and Puerto Rico to the US following its victory in the Spanish-American war. This effectively ended Spanish colonialism in the country; however, Cuba remained under American rule and occupation until its formal independence on May 20, 1902. With the end of the American military’s jurisdiction, the government back in the mainland United States helped set up the Cuban Republic. However, all was not rosy and the US-aided constitution of the nation had several clauses that would allow American interference in Cuban affairs. This was also marked by the acceptance of the Platt Amendment in 1901 before the country’s independence. Concessions to the US included an agreement to continue an administration based on American models, statutes that allowed the US to intervene in the nation’s affairs, and also the leasing of ports and harbors to the American Navy. However, the US allowed a considerable amount of Cuban sugar to enter the American market, influencing the nation to experience a certain degree of material prosperity. This was mainly because Cuba’s primary export activities were centered around its sugar plantations.

While the Cuban Republic would wade its way through the initial decades of the 20th century, the country remained plagued by instability and rebellion. The first revolution the country saw was the revolution of 1906. The then president Tomás Estrada Palma would request American intervention. The American mediation would fail, leading to Palma’s resignation and the establishment of an American governorship. Cuba got a renewed Republic in 1909. However, the corruption in subsequent presidents, racial tensions, and economic instability marked by the Great Depression in the 1930s made sure instability never left the Caribbean nation. Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929, a cascade of events led to the eventual rise of Fulgencio Batista who would lead the Sergeants’ Revolt in 1933 to oust the then president Rámon Grau San Martín. Along with the approval of nations like the US, Batista would confer presidential powers to Colonel Carlos Mendieta. His indirect control over the country would continue until 1940, when he contested the election and won the presidency. His presidency would see Cuba through the Second World War, with the country joining the war effort on the side of the Allies. Batista would be defeated in the 1944 elections, with San Martín returning to power. In the elections of 1952, Batista would run for president another time; however, he would go on to wrest control of the country forcefully through a bloodless coup. The next election would occur in 1954, with Batista being elected unopposed. However, his prolabor slant, decreasing approval, and falling sugar exports to the US would lead to the rise of several antiestablishment elements in his regime. This formally kicked off the Cuban Revolution with the 26th of July attacks—one of the first events in a long-fought war for the overthrow of the Batista establishment.

What Was the Cuban Revolution?

Following the forceful power grab orchestrated by Fulgencio Batista, numerous militant groups rose in Cuba to fight against the draconian regime. The armed insurrection against the government was to overthrow the dictatorship and re-establish a stable and elected government in its place. The insurrections would eventually turn into what we know today as the Cuban Revolution. July 26, 1953 is often marked as the day of the formal commencement of the revolution. The day saw an attack by the rebels on the Moncada Barracks—a Cuban military installation—in an attempt to break into the armory and steal weapons. The rebels were led by Fidel Castro and carried out a poorly planned attack on the Cuban military. Though the establishment was taken by surprise, the meager force raised by Castro was no match for the numerically and technologically superior Cuban army. While Castro and the remaining rebels managed to flee following their defeat, the Cuban establishment managed to capture most of them, including Castro and his brother Raul soon after. 

Many of the rebels faced torture and eventual death under regime incarceration. Fidel would face a rather publicized trial, where his words “History will absolve me” would become the clarion call for other revolutionaries across the country. Though Castro and Raul would be sentenced to 15 and 13 years respectively, foreign pressure would force the Batista regime to release the Castro brothers and all other political prisoners in 1955—a mere 2 years following their capture. The brothers would travel to Mexico and meet with other Cuban exiles, alongside famed Argentine revolutionary Ché Guevara and plot a further plan of action to ensure the revolution ended in the overthrow of the dictatorship. The next four years would be marked by both sporadic and protracted attacks on the incumbent regime’s forces following Castro’s return to Cuba. This period was rife with guerilla tactics and careful planning. Eventually, this would lead to the unseating of the Batista regime and result in the formal takeover of Cuba by Castro’s forces on the 1st of January 1959. He assumed the Prime Minister’s office about a month-and-a-half later on the 16th of February 1959, culminating the era of the Cuban Revolution.

Why Did the Cuban Revolution Start?

Apart from consistent instability and unrest ever since Cuba’s independence, several factors contributed to the lead-up to the Cuban Revolution. These unique conditions eventually became core reasons for the armed conflict and overthrow of the dictatorial regime of Fulgencio Batista. 

Here are the major causes of the Cuban Revolution:

The Military-Aided Dictatorship

The forceful overthrow of the electoral system in Cuba was among the most important causes of the revolution. While Batista had indirectly exerted control over the top offices of the government in the 1930s, he would finally become elected in 1940. However, his term was marred by severe corruption and numerous controversies in the backdrop of the Second World War. Upon contesting the 1952 elections, Batista would go on to dismiss the contest after orchestrating a coup on March 10, 1952. He would then unseat Carlos Príos Socarrás—Cuba’s then-president. Though repeated waves of instability had left a deep impact on the population, the dictatorship was the final straw that pushed the people to take up arms against the government. Batista’s government placed a brutal hold over the population using unruly methods and by entering backdoor partnerships with organized crime groups.

Batista’s initial term in 1940 had been rather liberal with several prolabor reforms. However, the true authoritarian would surface in 1952. While Cuba’s older communist party had supported the Batista regime in 1940, they would distance themselves from him following his sharp anti-communist turn in the second term. This change might also have been due to Batista’s intentions of currying favor with the United States—a nation that supported the brutal regime despite knowing the happenings in Cuba. Eventually, John F. Kennedy would condemn the corruption seeping into the Cuban government. The Batista regime would provide the spark to Fidel Castro, who was then a young lawyer slated to become a senator in 1952 to form his own revolutionary organization—the 26th of July Movement. This would lead him to become one of the most important Cuban Revolution leaders and Cuba’s future head of state. 

However, his term was marred by severe corruption and numerous controversies in the backdrop of the Second World War. Upon contesting the 1952 elections, Batista would go on to dismiss the contest after orchestrating a coup on March 10, 1952.

Corruption

Corruption had always been an issue in Cuba since its independence. The best era for Cuban administration lasted from 1902 to 1906, under president Tomás Estrada Palma. Subsequent regimes including those indirectly or directly aided by the United States indulged in widespread corrupt practices. While Cuba did see periods of relative stability and good governance interspersed between long periods of flawed rule, only lower levels of corruption were addressed. This often left the higher echelons of corrupt officials untouched by law enforcement and other investigative agencies. The extent of corruption was so pervasive that even a sitting Cuban president—José Miguel Gómez—would become involved in an extensive scandal involving the funding of the Havana harbor. Despite consistent promises made by various leaders to weed out corruption in the system, way too many officials were involved in complex scams that robbed the nation of precious revenue. The issue of corruption was not merely limited to elected officials, but was also prevalent in the military, with several high-level officers of the Cuban forces involved in special favors to select citizens, often receiving bribes in return. Reports even suggested the existence of an illegal gambling network within the military establishment, allowing bent officers to profit from it. The connections extended to Batista himself, compromising the overall integrity of both government and defense establishments under his regime. The Cuban state was constantly dealing with unholy alliances between the corrupt government, military, and organized crime, making the issue one of the major causes of the Cuban Revolution. 

While Cuba did see periods of relative stability and good governance interspersed between long periods of flawed rule, only lower levels of corruption were addressed. This often left the higher echelons of corrupt officials untouched by law enforcement and other investigative agencies.

Racism and Societal Fault Lines

Cuba’s colonial legacy left behind some of the worst elements from history in an already troubled nation. Sugar plantations during Spain’s reign in Cuba relied largely on slave labor to produce sugar. The Spanish Empire indulged in widespread violence against the indigenous populations of Cuba and nearly wiped out most of the indigenous peoples by the latter half of the 16th century. A considerable number of indigenous peoples spent their remaining years enslaved by their colonizers. Cuba under the Spanish Empire participated extensively in the International Slave Trade right up to 1867. The nation wouldn’t abolish the practice for another 19 years when the Spanish Empire finally saw fit to do away with the practice in 1886. Apart from African slave labor, Cuba also brought in thousands of indentured laborers from China to support the expanding plantation economy in the 19th century. Despite the abolition of slavery and Cuba’s independence from the Spanish Empire, the society in Cuba remained segregated right until the Cuban Revolution. 

Though Cuba never had institutionalized segregation, the private establishment had white-only visiting rules that kept the Cubans of African, indigenous, and mixed descent out of these spaces. Racial inequalities and the extreme poverty that plagued the rural Cuban landscape further destabilized society. While urban centers like Havana enjoyed near first-world privileges, the rural areas saw sugar plantation workers and others toil away in inhumane conditions. Existing inequalities made Cuba a fertile ground for revolutionary movements. Cuban Revolution leaders like Fidel Castro and Ché Guevara positioned themselves as voices for the poor and disenfranchised people of the country. Following his takeover, Fidel Castro put in place extensive policies to eliminate racial and income divides. This would eventually display lasting results in Cuban society, with racial discrimination becoming near-inexistent in society by the turn of the 1980s. 

Cuba under the Spanish Empire participated extensively in the International Slave Trade right up to 1867. The nation wouldn’t abolish the practice for another 19 years when the Spanish Empire finally saw fit to do away with the practice in 1886.

Persistent American Influence and Interference

The United States maintained a considerable presence and influence over Cuba even after its establishment as an independent republic. Apart from appointing military governors in periods of unrest such as in 1906, the US also took advantage of prevailing instability in Cuba and exploited its natural resources. The Platt Amendment passed by the Cuban Assembly remained in force till May 1934. While it was put in force by a slim majority of Cuban lawmakers, the claim is widely contested, with the conditions under which the treaty was signed remaining dubious and legally questionable to this day. The US intervened multiple times to restore order in periods marked by instability and power vacuums. Between 1906 and 1917, the US would directly exert control to re-establish stability in Cuba on 4 different occasions. Apart from powers to alter the political offices in Cuba, the American military also had special rights, with the American Navy frequently berthing its vessels in Cuban ports and harbors. 

However, rising nationalism in Cuba would force the population to begin despising constant American indulgence in national affairs. While Batista maintained a close relationship with the US, with the latter also recognizing his dictatorship, the US too was vocal about growing corruption in the nation. Despite the Platt Amendment being withdrawn, Cuba’s close relations with the US came with continued American participation in the former’s affairs. American imperialism was seen as an important factor in the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution. While Fidel Castro maintained cordial relationships with the American establishment in the year immediately following his takeover of Cuba, his sharp communist turn would sour the relationship in the years to come.

Apart from appointing military governors in periods of unrest such as in 1906, the US also took advantage of prevailing instability in Cuba and exploited its natural resources.

Cuban Revolution Timeline

The timeline of the Cuban Revolution spans almost 6 years, riddled with significant events that shaped the nation’s path to becoming a communist state. Here are some of the most important events significant to the Cuban Revolution’s timeline:

March 1952

Fulgencio Batista overthrows the elected government before the elections to secure power in a bloodless coup. 

July 26, 1953

A group of nearly 70 rebels led by Fidel and Raul Castro attack Moncada barracks to steal weapons from the Cuban military. The attack fails, leaving most rebels killed either during or following the attacks. Fidel and Raul Castro are sentenced to prison. 

June 1955

Fidel and Raul Castro along with other political prisoners are released by the Batista regime under international pressure. The brothers travel to Mexico and meet Ché Guevara where they regroup and link up with numerous other Cuban exiles to plot a protracted revolution against the government. The revolutionaries formed the organization “The 26th of July Movement” under the leadership of Fidel Castro. 

Late 1955

Student demonstrations take place across Cuba and extensively in the University of Havana, leading to its temporary closure. 

April 1956

A group of 100 rebels led by revolutionary leader Reynol Garcia stormed the Domingo Goicuria barracks, in an attack styled after the Moncada assault. While the attack was unsuccessful, it marked an important point in the Cuban Revolution. 

Late 1956

The Castro brothers along with Guevara and 80 others would board a yacht and sail to Playa las Coloradas in Cuba. Their landing on December 2,1956 marked a turning point in the revolution and was the main factor in starting the guerilla war. The group would trek to the Sierra Maestra mountains; however, Batista’s army would attack and kill most of the group, with barely 20 of the original 80 revolutionaries linking up and forming the guerilla army. 

March 1957

The Student Revolutionary Directorate would storm the presidential palace in an attempt to assassinate Batista, eventually leading to a catastrophic failure in the undertaking. Their leader would die in a shootout at the Havana radio station, as the main body of rebels failed to locate and execute Batista. 

Late 1957

Mutiny breaks out at the Cienfuego naval base, mainly led by young sailors and a few officers sympathetic to the 26th of July Movement’s cause. The base is taken over by rebel members, who then get supplied with weapons. Subsequently, the Cuban army puts down the mutiny, leading to the deaths of nearly 70 mutineers and rebels. 

Early 1958

As the conflict between Batista and the rebels continues, the American government places an embargo on Cuba. This cuts off the regime from American aid, military assistance, and supplies. The United States purportedly also supported the 26th of July Movement with arms and equipment from early 1957 to mid-1958. However, all aid ended with the turn of deteriorating situations within the country. 

Mid 1958

Batista’s forces launch an offensive against the rebels called Operation Verano. Though the Battle of La Plata saw successes for the rebels, the Battle of Las Mercedes resulted in a complete rout of Castro’s forces. The latter’s military would manage to barely escape from a major trap set by the government forces. However, the operation results in a net failure for the dictatorship. 

August 1958

Fidel and Guevara plan and execute a multipronged assault on state forces to take major swathes of the country from the government. The assaults are focused on four fronts, ensuring the state machinery is engaged on most fronts. 

November 1958

General elections took place in Cuba on November 3, 1958, with Andres Rivero Aguero of the Coalicion Progresista Nacional winning the election. The election was conducted despite a nationwide boycott call by the rebels that had threatened voters with dire consequences. While Aguero is slated to be sworn in by February 1959, the eventual rebel victory and takeover ensure Aguero’s victory would be for naught. 

Late 1958

Rebel victories in the battles of Santa Clara, Yaguajay, and Guisa resulted in major setbacks for the Batista regime, with the dictator himself fleeing the country by the end of December 1958.  

January 1959

Castro marched into Havana on January 8, 1959, with his presidential choice Manuel Urrutia Lleo having assumed office on January 3, 1959, formally bringing an end to the Cuban Revolution.

What Happened after the Cuban Revolution?

Significant changes occurred after the rebel takeover of Cuba; while Fidel Castro would visit the United States in 1959, claiming to not be a communist, his turn toward the ideology seeded great mistrust in both nations. The revolutionaries held the US in low regard for arming and supplying the Batista regime and nationalized all American assets on Cuban soil in August 1960. In response, the US government under President Dwight D. Eisenhower extended the embargo and froze every Cuban asset housed in the United States. The US would go on to cut off all diplomatic ties with Cuba, leading to a hostile environment in North America. This would see Cuba cozying up to the USSR, bringing about the US’ fears to the fore. The Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961 funded by the US would be a terrible failure, leading to the lowest point in US-Cuba relations.

All of these events only strengthened Cuba’s relationship with the Soviets, which eventually led to the stationing of Soviet nuclear missiles on the Caribbean nation. This event was a watershed moment in the history of the Cold War that brought the threat of nuclear destruction right to the US’ doorstep. The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 would become one of the most significant moments in contemporary history. While Cuba would see lasting prosperity in the decades to come, its close ties with the Soviets would continue right up until the Union’s collapse in 1991. The embargo on Cuba imposed by the US would only be loosened by the Obama administration in the mid-2010s, in what would become the Cuban Thaw. Though the embargo still remains in effect today, relations between both nations have improved greatly, also leading to great amounts of cultural exchange.