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INTRODUCTION
The ancient Greeks knew that reasoning is a structured process governed, at least partially, by a system of explainable rules. Aristotele codified syllogisms; Euclide formulated geometric theorems; Vitruvius defined the criterion and referential key so that every architectural element could be proportioned according to an ideal model, symbolizing the aspirations and aptitudes of that particular civil society.
In these forms of reasoning it is possible to distinguish contingent aspects with regard to the role which the use of a method and the application of a procedure play within any conceptual process: communicable by virtue of the codes and the prescribed norms, comparable in every time and place by virtue of the reproducibility of the procedures.
Euclidian logic begins with the inductive definition of very simple concepts and gradually constructs a vast body of results, organised in such a way so that each concept depends on the previous. Thus, a strong and rigorous construction is derived that makes all operations perceptible, comprehensible and intelligible. But, unlike processes that are physically constructed, Euclidian reasoning does not materially crumble if its structural elements, that is, its demonstrations, are not coherent with the reality of the empirical world. This explains why deductive-inductive logic, subtended by the philosophical-scientific thought of classical culture, has unconditionally influenced almost all fields of knowledge for almost two thousand years.
Physical-mathematical knowledge was the first to understand the conventional character that is typical of axiomatic reasoning: ".. which firstly, and in the most rigorous manner, became conscious of the symbolic character of its fundamental instruments" [Cassirer, 1929]. The attempt to render Euclid's works without contradictions has caused a review of the form in which scientific work is carried out [Saccheri, 1733]. The verification of the existence of many types of points and lineshas sanctioned the distinction, even in the field of knowledge, between common language and technical language, clarifying once and for all that it is the the type of link established between the symbol and the meaning that provides the symbol with its significance.
Already in antiquity, the criticism raised by the sophists against the use of a ‘common' language had established the premises for the definition of a technical, or pseudo-technical, language, which would be later adopted by Euclid in his Elements. Here, the first twenty-eight propositions, thanks to the uniqueness of the relations that link human intuitions to the properties of geometric entities, define absolute geometry; geometry, that is, which doesn't necessitate any preformulated theorem for its enunciation.
One of China’s best successes has in turn been one of its biggest downfalls. One of the main problems is China’s greatest success which has been its phenomenal economic growth. This is one of the main drivers of the current environmental problems that the country faces. Factories dump pollutants into the air and water. It is difficult to see the Chinese government making the significant sacrifices required to improve their environment if it means slowing down their economic growth.
Galileo’s struggle with the Catholic Church is the essence of the problems people had introducing new ideas to the world. This was a time period during which people were often killed for what they believed by either the state or the church. Perhaps by not killing Galileo outright the church showed that times were starting to change, or maybe not. The episode will no doubt go down in history, however, as a turning point in science, and in religious thought.
Galileo was condemned because he could not keep his opinions to himself and could not resist the
disrespectful without knowing it. Some know they're being disrespectful and are just interested in a
The Civil War played a big role in the development of our nation and what it is today. This occurred during a time when the views and beliefs of the northern states differed greatly from the views and beliefs of those who settled in the South, thus creating a battle where people fought from 1861-1865, not only for their rights, but for the fate of our country. Still today, there’s some debate over how the war really started, though most believe slavery was the main issue. In my opinion, I believe that there were multiple motives for the start of the Civil War; and while slavery played a part in that, it was not the main cause. In this essay, I will be demonstrating how Lincoln’s election and Dred Scott Decision (both direct and indirect causes)
More Slave states meant there would be more Southerners involved in congress, but if there were more Free States, there would be more northern representation in congress. However, the North and the South had different views on how the government should operate. The south wanted less government control, and more state freedom, while the North welcomed the central power of a government. After Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860, the South threatened to secede from the United States, because the South viewed the election of Abraham Lincoln threat to slavery The South was determined to start its own nation, by electing its own president, Thomas Jefferson. It started calling for International recognition as a nation from France and Britain. The South was persistent in becoming a separate country, but the North was determined to keep the
...cided to condemn Galileo’s work. While it does not discredit God’s power or the Bible, the overall tone of the scientist’s letter is quite sarcastic towards the clergy. While defending his first argument, Galileo appears to undermine the intellectual capabilities of his opponents. He implies that those who interpret the Holy Writ word for word belong to the “common people” whom he describes as “rude and unlearned”, and that other “wise expositors” should be the ones who search for the true meaning of the Bible. Galileo makes a similar implication while presenting his second argument, when he writes that the purpose of the Holy Scriptures is “infinitely beyond the comprehension of the common people”. The Catholic Church likely viewed these claims as an attempt to weaken its authority, which would explain why Galileo’s discoveries were condemned for nearly 300 years.
Galileo Galilei was an Italian philosopher born in 1564. As an adult, he didn’t believe the universal geocentric theory of the planets and heavens which was established by the Catholic Church. The church taught that the Earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around our planet. Another theory that the Church supported was that the Earth stood still while the sun rose and set every day. Society in the 1500’s believed that the Pope spoke for God through a divine connection and to against the church was to go against God. To speak out against the church in this time was strictly taboo. If one was to speak against the church was considered to be heresy, which is exactly what happened to Galileo. Galileo invented the telescope and began studying the heavens above and noticed that changes within the stars and planets. He noticed that the “stars” that surrounded Jupiter moved. He came to the conclusion through rational thinking, that the Copernicus’ heliocentric theory was correct. Copernicus was a scientist and philosopher whose theory proposed that the sun was stationary and the heavens orbit around the sun. Galileo tried to convince the church not to aboli...
China has approximately 20% of the world’s population, which is around 1.3 billion people (Morris, 2009, p. 111). Also, China has become one of the worlds biggest manufacturing countries within 30 years (Fawssett, 2009, p. 27). However, such rapid development has come at a cost, which has created various environmental problems. Coincidentally, China has 16 cities on a list of the 20 worst polluted cities in the world (Fawssett, 2009, p. 15). Therefore, this essay will explain the reasons for China’s environmental problems, then evaluate the claim that the Chinese government and people, are tackling these environmental problems. First, crop farming techniques over the last hundred years, and their consequences will be explained. Followed by, how peoples choice in food has changed over the last hundred years, and how this indirectly affects the environment. Then, how a capitalist economy is linked to agriculture, and finally what the Chinese government and people are doing to tackle these problems.
Geometry, a cornerstone in modern civilization, also had its beginnings in Ancient Greece. Euclid, a mathematician, formed many geometric proofs and theories [Document 5]. He also came to one of the most significant discoveries of math, Pi. This number showed the ratio between the diameter and circumference of a circle.
Many cities are currently affected by air pollution and Hong Kong is one example. Hong Kong’s air pollution level often exceeds the recommended air pollution level put out by the World Health Organization, and Hong Kong’s pollution index was at “very high” meaning that it exceeded 101, for 34% of the time (Hunt, 2011). Another example, when Hong Kong excee...
Galileo is one of the greatest scientists in the world, especially at that moment. At that
Moritz Schlick believed the all important attempts at establishing a theory of knowledge grow out of the doubt of the certainty of human knowledge. This problem originates in the wish for absolute certainty. A very important idea is the concept of "protocol statements", which are "...statements which express the facts with absolute simplicity, without any moulding, alteration, or addition, in whose elaboration every science consists, and which precede all knowing, every judgment regarding the world." (1) It makes no sense to speak of uncertain facts, only assertions and our knowledge can be uncertain. If we succeed therefore in expressing the raw facts in protocol statements without any contamination, these appear to be the absolutely indubitable starting points of all knowledge. They are again abandoned, but they constitute a firm basis "...to which all our cognitions owe whatever validity they may possess." (2) Math is stated indirectly into protocol statements which are resolved into definite protocol statements which one could formulate exactly, in principle, but with tremendous effort. Knowledge in life and science in some sense begins with confirmation of facts, and the protocol statements stand at the beginning of science. In the event that protocol statements would be distinguished by definite logical properties, structure, position in the system of science, and one would be confronted with the task of actually specifying these properties. We fin...
The problem facing induction has been a great challenge presented by epistemology to various philosophers, among them David Hume. Since the 18th century, he has raised the induction concern to various philosophers with the aim of finding a solution to the dilemma. Karl Popper, Chalmers among others philosophers played an imperative role in identifying a considerable solution to the induction problem. In philosophy, induction is defined as a form of reasoning that is derived from a particular observation of a phenomenon and draws conclusions from the phenomenon. For instance, it is certain that the sun will rise tomorrow in the morning simply because it has been observed that it rises every morning. This is an example of inductive reasoning among individuals. On the contrary, philosophers stipulate that inductive reasoning has its challenges that are based on the aspect of justification (Sellars, 2000, p. 64). This essay will aim at evaluating the problems of induction and establishing some possible solutions to the dilemma.
The Greeks are credited with inventing philosophy and it was believed that whoever pursued a deeper understanding in a subject was a philosopher. Since then, the subject of philosophy has grown and has helped us analyze complicated questions such as what is real and what is beauty. The questions encountered in philosophy can fall under four areas, but in this essay we will focus on one of them, Metaphysics. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions relating to the physical world. Further, in life we encounter many physical objects in which we can touch and feel. However, what makes these objects real? Plato introduced his metaphysics idea of Theory of Forms, which presents a view of what makes an object real. In this paper, I will touch upon the Theory of Forms and explain that a world of forms does exist separately from concrete/permanent things.