Use of Reflexivity in Ethnographic Research
Works Cited Missing
The use of reflexivity in ethnographic research and writing is used to insist that the anthropologist has systematically and rigorously revealed their methodology and their self as the instrument of data collection and generation. Reflexivity can play a variety of roles in ethnographic writings as observed in the works of Renato Rosaldo, Dorinne Kondo, and Ruth Behar. These three anthropologists all use reflexivity in different ways to convey their findings and feelings. The three works, however, also point out the advantages and the limits of ethnographic reflexivity.
Renato Rosaldo in his article “Grief and a Headhunters Rage” uses ethnographic reflexivity to show how in the beginning of his fieldwork he “was not yet in a position to comprehend the force of anger possible in bereavement” (Rosaldo, 7) and that it wasn’t until fourteen years later when he experienced the loss of his wife that he could comprehend what the Ilongots had told him about grief, rage, and headhunting. Rosaldo then writes “I began to fathom the force of what Ilongots had been telling me about their losses through my own loss, and not through any systematic preparation for field research” (Rosaldo, 8). Renato Rosaldo’s own experiences had helped him to understand and empathize with the Ilongots, who fourteen years earlier, he was not able to understand that the Ilongot’s statement that “Rage, born of grief, impels him to kill his fellow human beings.” (Rosaldo, 1)Rosaldo’s writings point out that having similar experiences allows the anthropologist to understand and empathize with the people they are studying. This comprehension on the anthropologist’s behalf allows for easier accessibility and transcription to the general public. Shared experiences, however, allow for more biases and interpretations to seep into the anthropologist’s writing. It is more likely that the anthropologist will use his or her own experiences and interpretations when writing on the culture. Renato Rosaldo addresses this issue when he writes, “by invoking personal experience as an analytical category one risks easy dismissal” (Rosaldo, 11).
In the article “Dissolution and Reconstitution of Self: Implications for Anthropological Epistemology”, Dorinne Kondo uses ethnographic reflexivity to discuss her research in Japan, being a Japanese-American, and the expectations of being Japanese. Dorinne Kondo was torn between the American culture she was accustomed to and the Japanese culture she was studying and tried to associate with.
Matsumoto studies three generations, Issei, Nisei, and Sansei living in a closely linked ethnic community. She focuses her studies in the Japanese immigration experiences during the time when many Americans were scared with the influx of immigrants from Asia. The book shows a vivid picture of how Cortex Japanese endured violence, discriminations during Anti-Asian legislation and prejudice in 1920s, the Great Depression of 1930s, and the internment of 1940s. It also shows an examination of the adjustment period after the end of World War II and their return to the home place.
Martin Luther King, Jr. Wrote “Letter from Birmingham Jail” during 1963, in this time frame African Americans were fighting the rest of the population for civil rights. We can see this from the vocabulary MLK uses, like “Negro”, which was majority used when African Americans were not seen as equals. We can also see this through the context of the letter; that he wants freedom for African Americans. The purpose of the letter he wrote in jail, is to convince the clergyman that he and his "people" acted out because their actions were necessary at that time. When doing this, he used condemnatory and persuasive tones to try to persuade the reader to his point of view. Martin Luther King uses Logos, Pathos, and Ethos throughout his piece to provide his argument.
A statement from eight white clergymen from Alabama prompted Martin Luther King’s “Letter From Birmingham Jail”. This statement criticized Kings actions of non-violent protests against racial segregation and the injustice of unequal civil rights in America (Carpenter elt al.). The eight clergymen considered Birmingham to be “their” town and King was disrupting the “Law and Order and Common Sense” established in coping with racial issues in Alabama during this time (Carpenter elt al. par 1). These clergymen considered King an “outsider” and describe his actions as “unwise and untimely” (Carpenter elt al. par 3). This statement suggests that there is an appropriate time to create equality among all Americans. To analyze the power strategizes of Martin Luther King’s Letter we must understand this letter was written from a jail cell, where King a black man, was held for protesting for racial equality. Furthermore, King began writing his letter among the margins of the newspaper’s article that contained the clergymen’s statement (King Institute).
Kings first attempt to reach his reader is through his appeal to their logic or reasoning. He does this by presenting a direct relationship between the reasoning for his position against segregation and argument for it’s resulting actions of civil disobedience by those oppressed by it. This approach is most evident when King gives the reasoning for his statement, "I have almost reached the regrettable conclusion that the Negro's great stumbling block in his stride toward freedom is not the White Citizen's Councilor or the Klu Klux Klanner, but the white moderate...
I agree with his main points that King had presented in the essay. Everyone should have equal rights in every criteria including socially, politically, and religiously. This is what King wanted for everyone. He wanted to peacefully bring every race and gender together as one society not multiple societies like how it was. King argued the freedom and equality
Within this period of Civil Rights Movement, in 1963, in Birmingham, Alabama, the strain of racial segregation that was imposed on African Americans was reaching the point where the African Americans were treated badly in the public. After being arrested for his part in the Birmingham Campaign, King wrote rhetorical appeal letter in response to “A Call for Unity”, which was written by eight white clergymen from Alabama. In order for King to get the heart of the clergymen and his audience, he uses logos to elucidate to the clergymen by comparing racial injustice to a boil: King state, “Like a boil that can never be cured so long as it is covered up but must be opened with all its ugliness to the natural medicines of air and light, injustice must be exposed, with all the tension its exposure creates, to the light of human conscience and the air of national opinion before it can be cured” (King 4). Dr. Martin Luther King’s “Letter From Birmingham Jail” is an emotional gaze into the authenticity of racial discrimination in 1960s America. King established this letter to his fellow clergymen which aims to address their concerns on the subject of the wisdom and timing of the nonviolent actions and the unjust demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama that he and other fellow leaders carried out in 1963. King employs all three types of appeals ethos, pathos and logos; however, I discover that I am particularly moved by pathos and ethos in his letter. So much thought that I must admit I was primarily mystified by my own emotions. King’s letter evoked strong feelings of compassion, indignation, and even pride in his audience. King use of logical statements and established facts to influence a strong opinion toward the clergymen and the people of Alabama, King uses logical reasoning in several occasions throughout his letter. For instance, when in
Beginning with ethnohistory, which includes anthropology, the beginnings of the different studies of mankind are introduced, when the book then jumps to a postcolonial perspective the views of the future are pointed to the mistakes of the past. Each theory has a purpose to explaining the views and studies of different historians around the world. This essay will compare my views on ethnohistory combined with anthropology versus the views of postcolonial history.
The letter was written during the 1960’s when people, white people in particular, believed that segregating African Americans was civil and humane. Furthermore, white people thought that African Americans were an inferior race. King includes the following in his letter: “I doubt that you would so quickly commend the policemen if you were to observe their ugly and inhumane treatment of Negroes here in the city jail; if you were to watch them push and curse old Negro women and young Negro girls…” (p.187) Martin Luther King’s purpose of writing is to address this occasion of racism and cruelty towards African Americans living in the United States of America. In the letter, King attempts to appeal to multiple audiences. His first major audience is the eight Alabama clergymen. King’s letter is a direct response to them and their belief that the non-violent protests occurring in the city create tension and are unlawful. Another audience is the white moderate who does not take a stance on the issue of African Americans having basic human rights. By
...omic exploitation. After enduring such injustices and hardships, many are now enjoying the life the Issei dreamed of for their families. Bibliography Work Cited Parillo, Vincent N. Strangers to These Shors: Race and Ethnitc Relations in the United States. Needham Heights, : Massachuchetts: 2000, 287-289. Klimova, Tatiana A. “Internment of Japanese Americans: Military Necessity or Racial Prejudice.” Old Dominion University. 1-9 (5/2/00) Asia, Ask. “Linking The Past to Present: Asian Americans Then and Now.” The Asia Society 1996. 1-3 (5/1/00 Spickard, Paul R. Japanese Americans: The transformation and Formation of an Ethnic Group. New Yourk:1996,93-159 McWilliams, Carey. Prejudice Japanese Americans: Symbol of racial Intolerance. boston: 1945,106-190. Myer, Dillon S. “Joseph Yoshisuke Kurihara.” Upprinted Americans 1971. 1-5 (5/1/00) Asin, Stefanie.”Poignand Memories.” Houston Chronicle 7/31/95.1-3 5/2/00 Reaseach Center.”research on 100th/442nd reginent conbat team.:NJAHS.1-2 5/2/00 Miyoshi, Nubu.:Idenity Crisis of the Sansei.”Sansei legacy project 3/13/98.1-21 5/1/00 Kiang, Peter.” Understanding the Perception of Asian Americans.” Asian Society1997.1-2 5/2/00 Word Count: 1862
Martin Luther King, Jr.’s famous “Letter from Birmingham Jail” was written to address the public criticism he and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference received from eight clergymen. In his letter, King shows off his fiery emotion throughout his letter. However, King does not force his beliefs upon his readers. Rather, he hopes that his readers will see his perspective on the situation through an emotional appeal. If the readers are able to recognize the injustice and inequality suffered by the African American community, perhaps they can. The fourteenth and fifteenth paragraphs were a true testament to his passion and ambition for equal rights.
If he had not made clear that he was a trustworthy, knowledgeable, and honest man, he would not have made his point clear. King’s statement “Oppressed people cannot remain oppressed forever,” (Martin Luther King 24) is a strong reminder of history. If people do not realize their emotions in a nonviolent way, they will seek violence until they are heard. That statement is one of the strongest concerns to show why direct action was important, as well as, convincing the reader to consider their immoral practices. King goes above any beyond in sharing his beliefs because if he had not, the audience would not have been persuaded. Furthermore, the information and evidence he demonstrated was necessary at that
... does an exceptionally good job at making a connection between an African American citizen in favor of equality to people in favor of segregation. He is able to construct a common ground between his readers in many ways. King forces his readers to compare Hitler's genocide agenda to the suppression of African Americans in America. He is also able to connect with his audience on levels such as religion, law, and morality. His use of logic as a method to bypass racist feelings and ideas allows him to get his point across without his readers brushing off his letter as just another attempt for equality. Instead, he greatly influences his readers while they gain a significant amount of respect for his words and ideas.
Anthropology began, and remains, a study of other cultures. The rules of which, defined by Malinowski and his contemporaries, included the traditional dichotomy of Self and Other. Reflexivity involves viewing the self in addition to the people of a different culture and on Self and Self instead of Other. Reflexivity is not a component that Malinowski would have included, in fact he states his opinion on the self within ethnographic work, "he may draw on himself for stimulus. But the two functions are separate, and in actual research they have to be separated both in time and conditions of work"(Malinowski,8). Advances must be made in anthropology and, despite the views of writers of the past, reflexivity has proven to be effective, successfully evolving into the field of anthropology.
Reflexivity is a qualitative method of research that takes an ethnography one step further, displaying the personal thoughts and reflections of the anthropologist on his informants. Ethnographies generally take an outside or foreign perspective of a culture, like reading a text, and reflexivity introduces a new component of inside description. Here, the anthropologist may describe personal interactions and experiences with natives and use this inside information to make additional conclusions about the people being studied. The ethnographer may also reflect on his ethnic connections with his informants, or his acceptance into the society, explaining that it provides valuable, inside knowledge of the culture and ultimately leads to a greater understanding of the native people as a whole.
For example, In 1947, the Executive board of the American Anthropological Association refused to take part in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, due to the constraints of Cultural Relativism (Textbook 300). By embracing the concept of Cultural Relativism, anthropologists take on the role of an “observer” that records data rather than taking on an “interventionist” role (Powerpoint 4). As a result, anthropologists prevent their own bias and judgement being applied to the culture they are studying. Historically, there have been instances, such as genocide, in which anthropologists have spoken out against (Textbook 300). But for the many other human rights issues, such as domestic abuse, anthropologists have not spoken out in consideration of the principle of cultural relativism (Textbook 300).