Reptiles, the class of reptilian, are an evolutionary grade of eukarya, including today’s turtles, crocodilians, snakes, lizards, as well as many other extinct groups. Reptiles have existed on this planet for millions of years and have undergone countless mutations. One area of interest is how have these creatures defended themselves as their predators have evolved? Over time, evolution has caused the many subspecies of reptiles to develop a wide variety of defensive mechanisms including: camouflage, venom, body armor, behaviors, and other abnormal morphologies. This topic is interesting from an evolutionary/ecological point of view for several reasons. It provides insight into how reptiles have changed over time, shows how defensive mechanisms differ even within sub species, and shows the relationship between benefit and costs of producing the mechanism. In looking at these mechanisms we as humans can create potential benefits to ourselves. By examining how and why certain defensive mechanisms have developed we could predict how they may continue to change. We can examine how the environmental changes have influenced these evolutionary changes and determine if there needs to be outside interference. Potentially, certain defensive mechanisms could be studied and adapted to help defend humans: scales to body armor, infrared vision, etc. Also, if we are harmed by any of these defensive mechanisms we need to be prepared to heal ourselves (venom and anti-venom). So how do these mechanisms exist in the wild? Crypsis, or more commonly known as camouflage, is a way in which both predators and prey disguise themselves/ blend in with their environment. Not only is crypsis advantageous in defense or hunting situations, this mechanism is al... ... middle of paper ... ...A.S. (1991). Habits of 5 Brazilian Snakes with Coral-Snake Pattern, Including a Summary of Defensive Tactics. STUDIES ON NEOTROPICAL FAUNA AND ENVIRONMENT, 26(3), 159-164. doi: 10.1080/01650529109360848 Sering, M. (1997). Tail squirting in Eurydactylodes: Independent evolution of caudal defensive glands in a diplodactyline Gecko (Reptilia, Gekkonidae). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 235(3-4), 225-229. Thermoregulation. 2013. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved November, 7, 2013 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/thermoregulation Yang, W., Chen, I.H., Gludovatz, B., Zimmermann, E.A., Ritchie, R.O., Meyers, M.A. (2013). Natural Flexible Dermal Armor, ADVANCED MATERIALS, 25(1), 31-48. doi: 10.1002/adma.201202713 Young, B.A., Boetig, M., Westhoff, G. (2009). Spitting behavior of hatching red spitting cobras (Naja pallida), HERPETOLOGICAL JOURNAL, 19(4), 185-191
One hundred and fifty million years ago, large aquatic species of reptile such as the Plesiosaur dominated the ocean, and were pre-eminent predators of the sea. The branch of now extinct Plesiosaurs, or ‘near lizards’, evolved into variant closely related species specialised to take different niches in the food chain. Such species of Plesiosaur include the phenotypically similar Plesiosauroid and Pliosauroid. The physiological adaptations of the long necked variant, the Plesiosauroid, as it relates to deep sea diving, will be addressed in depth.
Other large non-native snakes— such as the common boa (Boa constrictor), green anaconda (Eunectes murinus), yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus), and reticulated python (Python reticulatus)—have been observed in the wild in South Florida, but only Burmese pythons and common boas are known to be breeding. Burmese pythons were first reported as established in Everglades National Park (ENP) by Meshaka, based in part on specimens collected on the Main Park Road in the mid-1990s. Since then, the number of Burmese pythons captured or found dead in and around ENP has dramatically increased. From 2002 - 2005, 201 pythons were captured and removed or found dead.
The snake’s calm demeanor when they first meet, his confidence and power, and his gruesome death help evoke sympathy in the reader. The reader’s first impression of the snake is that “he held his ground in calm watchfulness.” His stance was tense, but not threatening, as “his head was not drawn back to strike.” He does not intend to attack without being provoked; he
Known as Pterois Volitans in the animal kingdom, also called the red lionfish, is a sight to behold in the tropical waters as they swim like an underwater butterfly in the sea. In waters not native to their origin, as they are from the Pacific and have predators that will have them for a snack. Invasive to the Caribbean Sea they have rapidly reached the Gulf of Mexico and far south, spreading to parts of South America. The lionfish has become a persistent pest that’s more trouble than what it appears to be, attractive yet deceptive with a striking pattern of white and red stripes. In the New York Times article, A Call to Action… and Even Rodeos, scientists say that, “from 2005 onward, lionfish have become the most numerous nonnative invasive species in the world.” The average pound fish is one of nature’s clever creations, a venomous foe with spines and an infinite appetite that reproduce quickly. Invasive species are notorious because they have no or almost nonexistent natural predators and they are adapt to their new home very well. The biological adaptations of this fish has caused both ecological and economical mayhem, serious measures have been taken up to control their population as well as to protect our coral reefs.
Mammals of Florida. Miami, Florida: Windward Publishing. 3. Land, Darrell, and Sharon K. Taylor. 1998.
Deborah L. Duffy, Yuying Hsu, James A. Serpell ,Applied Animal Behavior Science - 1 December 2008 (Vol. 114, Issue 3, Pages 441-460, DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.04.006)
Pianka, E. and Parker, W. 1975. Ecology of horned lizards: A review with special reference to Phrynosoma platyrhinos. Copeia 1975: 141-162.
Nicholson KE, Harmon LJ, Losos JB. Evolution of Anolis Lizard Dewlap Diversity. PLOS ONE. 2007
Dinosaurs are an extinct group of animals that thrived for 165 million years starting 230 million years ago in the Late Triassic period of the Mesozoic Era. Despite being extinct for the past 65 million years and not being able to study them in their true form, scientists have been able to estimate many different behaviors of dinosaurs. This paper will show that the close study and examination of different types of body and trace fossils, along with animal models, can be provided as evidence to estimate different types of behaviors in dinosaurs. The different types of behaviors examined below will fall into the categories of: mating; reproduction and nesting; social lives; locomotion; feeding; and fighting. To begin, a great deal of information gathered from fossils and compared to living animal models have been used to estimate mating behaviors.
Retrieved March 20th, 2014 from http://www.wkyc.com/story/news/investigations/2014/02/12/wild-animals-exotic-illegal-dangerous-snakes-lions-bears-alligators/5432701/.
Ménez, Andre’. The Subtle Beast: Snakes, from Myth to Medicine. New York, New York: CRC Press, 2003.
The Axolotl, a crucially endangered neotenous species of mole salamander, has adapted to fit its environment so it can easily catch food and evade predators. The Axolotl’s habitat is the lake system of Xochimilco that is near Mexico City, Mexico. This shallow, fresh water lake complex has a temperature range of 6- 20°C and a pH of 7- 12. The complex also has the Axolotl’s primary food sources of mollusk, insect larvae, and other crustaceans. However, with the introduction of foreign species such as the Asian Carp and the African Tilapia, the Axolotl now has predators that may eat and threaten it, and it has competition for the animals it usually eats. Fortunately, the Axolotl has developed adaptations that aid it in catching food and evading predators. To help it catch food the Axolotl’s teeth are shaped like cones, so that its “vacuum” action of sucking in as much water in order to also eat food is aided by the shape of the teeth, which allow it to grip, rather than chew. To aid them in avoiding predators they are able to metamorphose so that they use their lungs more than their gill, which allows them to leave very toxic waters and the predators within. Another adaption that helps them deflect any predator is that they are able to regenerate body parts that have been lost, allowing them to stay as strong as possible. Axolotl’s have adaptations that aid their survival from predators in the lake complex Xochimilco that they reside in.
The snakes are described as “incumbunt pelago,” or, roughly, “pressing on over the sea” - therefore, Lichtenstein’s setting is fairly accurate to the original. (2.205) However, in terms of the actual situation, his depiction differs from Vergil’s. The snakes are described as “bis medium amplexi, bis collo squamea circum terga dati,” or “embracing his waist twice, twice winding their scaly folds around his neck.” (2.218-219)
Reptiles are vertebrate, or backboned animals constituting the class Reptilia and are characterized by a combination of features, none of which alone could separate all reptiles from all other animals.The characteristics of reptiles are numerous, therefore can not be explained in great detail in this report. In no special order, the characteristics of reptiles are: cold-bloodedness; the presence of lungs; direct development, without larval forms as in amphibians; a dry skin with scales but not feathers or hair; an amniote egg; internal fertilization; a three or four-chambered heart; two aortic arches (blood vessels) carrying blood from the heart to the body, unlike mammals and birds that only have one; a metanephric kidney; twelve pairs of cranial nerves; and skeletal features such as limbs with usually five clawed fingers or toes, at least two spinal bones associated with the pelvis, a single ball-and-socket connection at the head-neck joint instead of two, as in advanced amphibians and mammals, and an incomplete or complete partition along the roof of the mouth, separating the food and air passageways so that breathing can continue while food is being chewed. These and other traditional defining characteristics of reptiles have been subjected to considerable modification in recent times. The extinct flying reptiles, called pterosaurs or pterodactyls, are now thought to have been warm-blooded and covered with hair. Also, the dinosaurs are also now considered by many authorities to have been warm-blooded. The earliest known bird, archaeopteryx, is now regarded by many to have been a small dinosaur, despite its covering of feathers The extinct ancestors of the mammals, the therapsids, or mammallike reptiles, are also believed to have been warm-blooded and haired.
Behavioural hypothesis centres on protection of nest and the forming of the mating bond. (Mueller (1990) p. 553-585). This has similarities with the male mating theory.