HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER FROM BACTERIA TO EUKARYOTES AND ITS ROLE IN EVOLUTION
The genome of any organism is referred to as the total genetic content possessed by that organism. The movement of genetic material is defined as the process of Gene Transfer. Gene Transfer can be done in two directions: vertical gene transfer (transfer of genetic material from parent to offspring) and horizontal gene transfer or lateral gene transfer (transfer of genetic material from donor organism to recipient organism). The process of gene transfer is a type of DNA-sharing process in which direct movement of DNA is observed between two organisms and not parent to offspring. The first occurrence of Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT), also known as Lateral Gene Transfer (LGT) was seen in micro-organisms in the late 1940s. For the transferred gene to survive in the host for long period of time, it
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NHEJ functions in all the types of cells, from bacteria to man, and it carries out various functions such as repair of double stranded DNA breaks, telomere maintenance, and the insertion into the genome of HIV-1 and repetitive sequences. NHEJ seems to function in three main steps: 1) DNA end-binding and bridging, 2) terminal end processing, 3) and ligation of the two strands (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2004_7/Page2.htm). Another mechanism by which genes can be exchanged between related species is through – Introregression – that is, flow of genetic material as a result of interspecies hybridization followed by repeated backcrosses to any one of the parents. It is a major type of gene transfer mechanism in transgenic crops that are grown in proximity to non-domesticated relatives. However, it is not just restricted to plants. Introgression was believed to have intro¬duced an allele which is required in functional brain development from archaea to humans
The two modes of analysis that will be used to identify an unknown insert piece of DNA would be plating the transformation cells onto LA plates that have either ampicillin or chloramphenicol and PCR. We will use the PCR thermocycler to denature the restriction enzymes that were specifically used to assimilate the vector DNA. It is important to use the PCR thermocycler because denaturation of the restriction enzyme will prevent the restriction enzyme from cutting the vector DNA, after the insert DNA has assimilated to the vector DNA. After the addition of specific primers that complement the base pair to its corresponding target strand, PCR will be used. Subsequently, Taq polymerase will be used to determine whether the insert DNA has been properly assimilated to the vector DNA. Within this specific situation, the target strand will be the insert DNA. After we let the PCR thermocycler run for approximately 2 ½ hours, we will then put our PCR products in the gel and run the gel to completion. After the gel has run to completion, we will then take a photograph of the gel using the UV transilluminator with the assistance of our TA. If the insert DNA was properly assimilated to the vector DNA, then our corresponding gel photo would have one band. After the cells have been transformed, we would g...
Show your understanding of the structure of nucleic acids by describing the similarities and differences between DNA, mRNA and tRNA. Your descriptions should include drawings with labels of the nucleotide structures and the overall structures of each where applicable.
A previous study, looked at by the researchers, stated that nuclear localization signals are what allow the RNA to enter the nucleus (Wu W, Pante N. 2009). This persuaded them to ask the question of whether or not there was a nuclear localization signal within a viral protein of HCRSV. The localization of P23 was then tested using a transient expression method. The results of their experiment showed that there was a strong signal detected in the nucleus of the Kenaf leaf samples. This proved that P23 was in fact localized in the nucleus and that a nuclear localization signal is present in P23 (Gao R, Liu P, Wong SM. 2012). It was also found that P23 has the ability to bind to carrier proteins that come into the nucleus. This showed that even if P23 was not localized in the nucleus, it could still enter. The mode of entry into the nucleus was discovered to by α-importin (Gao R, Liu P, Wong SM. 2012) . This was discovered by experimenting with a probe of anti-importin α antibody. α-importin was only detected in the protein extract of P23 in the nucleus of the HCRSV-infected Kenaf sample (Gao R, Liu P, Wong SM. 2012). Researchers concluded from their results of the experiments that α-importin, P23, and HCRSV RNA form a complex that enters the nucleus to begin replication of the
After crossing the parental generation Mendel proposed the Law of Segregation which states that copies of a gene split during the passing of traits from parent to offspring. Later, Mendel determined that different genes assort randomly into gametes, or sex cells. This means that genes cannot be linked. (Campbell, 2007) Gene linkage is described as the association of genes on the same chromosome which is a product of crossing over. (Northwestern, 2004)
Hall, Linley Erin. “Understanding Genetics DNA and RNA.” New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2011. Print. 01 Apr. 2014.
Gene therapy, a relatively new innovention, is becoming popular across the country. Gene therapy modifies a part of an organism, whereas cloning creates an entirely recreated organism. This technique can be conducted in vivo in either somatic or germ cells. The process is essentially aimed at fixing a genetic disorder or disease by inserting a functional gene to replace the faulty one (Houdebine 2003). Many methods to conduct a gene transfer have been tested. The two types are in vivo and in vitro. Transferring genes in vivo means placing the functional genes directly into the target tissue; while vitro transfers creates the genes outside of the body, in Petri dishes. Vitro is an expensive process that r...
Ethical issues also play a role in the selection of the solutions. Most patients perceive xenotransplantation as an acceptable alternative to transplantation of human organs in life-threatening situations provided the potential benefits outweigh any likely adverse effects on the animals. Xenotransplantation of organs from chimpanzees and baboons has been avoided, because of ethical concerns as chimpanzees are listed as endangered species and the fear of transmission of deadly viruses. Pigs are plentiful, quick to mature, breed well in captivity, have large litters, and have vital organs roughly comparable in size to those of humans. Further there are physiologic similarities between their antibodies to human antibodies, and also since they are already being used in the consumer market, organs have been mainly harvested from pigs. Humans have had prolonged and close contact with pigs, their use for the purpose of xenotransplantation is believed to be less likely to introduce any new infectious agents. Porcine islet cells of Langerhans have been injected into patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Porcine skin has been grafted onto burn patients, and pig neuronal cells have been transplanted into patients with Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.
Cloning Cloning is a process that creates exact genetic copies of an existing cell. Cloning is a more general term that describes a number of different processes that can be used to produce genetically identical copies. The process of cloning can happen either naturally, for instance, when identical twins develop, or it can be induced through synthetic conditions in a laboratory. There are three different types of artificial cloning: gene cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning.
In the essay, Cloning Reality: Brave New World by Wesley J. Smith, a skewed view of the effects of cloning is presented. Wesley feels that cloning will end the perception of human life as sacred and ruin the great diversity that exists today. He feels that cloning may in fact, end human society as we know it, and create a horrible place where humans are simply a resource. I disagree with Wesley because I think that the positive effects of controlled human cloning can greatly improve the quality of life for humans today, and that these benefits far outweigh the potential drawbacks that could occur if cloning was misused.
Taylor, J., Loney, B. R., Bobadilla, L., Loacono, W.G., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and
"The aim is to decrease the fear of a brave new world and to encourage people to be more proactive about their health. It [Gene therapy] will help humans become better physically and even mentally and extend human life. It is the future” (Hulbert). Dr. Hulbert, a genetic engineer, couldn’t be anymore right; more time, money, and research needs to be put into gene therapy and genetic engineering, since it can cure certain illness and diseases that are incurable with modern medicine, has fewer side-effects than conventional drugs or surgery, and allows humans to be stronger physically and mentally at birth. Gene therapy or genetic engineering is the development and application of scientific methods, procedures, and technologies that permit direct manipulation of genetic material in order to alter the hereditary traits of a cell, organism, or population (NIH). It essentially means that we can change DNA to make an organism better. Genetic engineering is used with animals and plants every day; for example with genetic...
The birth of genetic engineering and recombinant DNA began in Stanford University, in the year 1970 (Hein). Biochemistry and medicine researchers were pursuing separate research pathways, yet these pathways converged to form what is now known as biotechnology (Hein). The biochemistry department was, at the time, focusing on an animal virus, and found a method of slicing DNA so cleanly that it would reform and go on to infect other cells. (Hein) The medical department focused on bacteria and developed a microscopic molecular messenger, that could not only carry a foreign “blueprint”, or message, but could also get the bacteria to read and copy the information. (Hein) One concept is needed to understand what happened at Stanford: how a bacterial “factory” turns “on” or “off”. (Hein) When a cell is dividing or producing a protein, it uses promoters (“on switches”) to start the process and terminators (“off switches”) to stop the process. (Hein) To form proteins, promoters and terminators are used to tell where the protein begins and where it ends. (Hein) In 1972 Herbert Boyer, a biochemist, provided Stanford with a bacterial enzyme called Eco R1. (Hein) This enzyme is used by bacteria to defend themselves against bacteriophages, or bacterial viruses. (Hein) The biochemistry department used this enzyme as a “molecular scalpel”, to cut a monkey virus called SV40. (Hein) What the Stanford researchers observed was that, when they did this, the virus reformed at the cleaved site in a circular manner. It later went on to infect other cells as if nothing had happened. (Hein) This proved that EcoR1 could cut the bonding sites on two different DNA strands, which could be combined using the “sticky ends” at the sites. (Hein). The contribution towards genetic engineering from the biochemistry department was the observations of EcoR1’s cleavage of
Genes are a distinct sequence of nucleotides that form a segment of a chromosome. A gene’s purpose is to instruct an organism's cells to create certain proteins. These proteins perform different tasks like creating eye pigments or regulating a heartbeat. Using garden pea plants, he noted they had different characteristics – what Mendel called traits - and experimented with the genetic inheritance of these plants. Mendel knew inherited traits were passed on in the gametes, the sex cells.
Genetics is the passing of characteristics from parents to offspring through genes. Genes are information
What are the principle, ethical issues and experimental procedures used in genetic engineering and cloning? Should Cloning be allowed to continue?