An idea first brought to the attention of the world back in the 1960’s when researchers first noted that the cell could destroy its own contents by a matter of enclosure within the membrane. (1) This lead to the formation of vesicles that were efficiently transported to a recycling component called the lysosome, for degradation. The term autophagy simply means "self-eating”. Scientifically, the term accounts for “a normal physiological process that deals with the destruction of cells in the body”. (2) Due to the complexity of the phenomenon, little advances had been made until a series of experiments were conducted in the early 1990’s. Yoshinori Ohsumi; a Japanese cell biologist born in 1945, conducted an experiment using the test subject of yeast, which led him to identify the critical genes for autophagy. Through further studies, he noted the underlying correlation between autophagy mechanisms used in yeast and the machinery used in our cells. Ohsumi’s new discoveries created the path in understanding the critical importance of autophagy in many …show more content…
By utilizing the model yeast S. cerevisiae, Ohsumi found a method for identifying the ATG genes. Ohsumi blocked vacuolar degradation using the yeast mutants, then induced autophagy by starving the cells. With the vacuole impaired, the autophagosomes accumulated in the cell, allowing researchers to simply visualize these compartments, which are generally quite difficult to identify. Ultimately, this technique allowed for the discovery of autophagy genes and mechanisms. (4) This concluded the discovery of the first genes necessary for autophagy. The results displayed that autophagy is controlled by a number of proteins and protein complexes which promote a specific stage of the formation of autophagosomes.
Keiger, D. (2010, June 2). Immortal Cells, Enduring Issues. Johns Hopkins Magazine. Retrieved from http://http://archive.magazine.jhu.edu/2010/06/immortal-cells-enduring-issues/
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes which function in the acid of the lysosome and are meant to be secreted not as wastes into the extracellular fluids, but as secretory proteins into an intracellular organelle. When one of these enzymes is dysfunctional, the catabolism of its macromolecule does not completely occur and there is a buildup of the macromolecule inside the lysosome. This results in great numbers of large lysosomes which begin to interfere with the normal functions of the cell. This disorder is called lysosomal storage disorder. These disorders can eventually lead to the dysfunction of the organs. The organs affected by the disorder are determined by two factors: 1) The location in the body where the macromolecules that are to be catabolized are found, and 2) The location where the catabolism occurs.
In our body’s we have thousands upon thousands of cells that work together to maintain the whole structure. Although cells accomplish different roles, they all are comparable in their metabolic conditions. Preserving a continuous inner environment with what the cells require to survive like sugar, minerals, oxygen and waste removal is essential for the cells and host well-being. The diverse process that the body controls its inner environment are referred to as homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to maintaining a stable environment in reaction to environmental changes. The body’s inner environment requires constant observation to maintain a stable inner environment this way if conditions occur they can be adjusted. Homeostatic regulation is the adjustment of systems in the body. “Homeostatic regulation involves three parts or mechanisms: 1) the receptor, 2) the control center and 3) the effector.” (Wikibooks, para. 2)
The above events end in cell death, including depletion of ATP, changes in ionic concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium, increased lactate, acidosis, accumulation of oxygen free radicals, intracellular accumulation of water, and activation of proteolytic processes.(Deb, Sharma, & Hassan, 2010). Surrounding this is the penumbra(Rodriguez-Yanez et al., 2006)
Schulman, Joshua M., and David E. Fisher. "Abstract." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 28 Aug. 0005. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
The article begins by stating that the tumor suppressor p53 has great importance in the prevention of cancer growth and expansion. Although cancer is the most spoken about topic and p53’s significance against it, p53 also has a hand in ischemia, neurodegeneration, and ageing. While this tumor suppressor seems to be very busy it also regulates the repair of DNA and death of the cell, just to name a few. The activity of p53 can be seen when binding to the DNA at target sequences for transcription. It was pointed out that the doings of p53 are not designated to the nucleus such as other transcription factors as determined over time. Further mentioned in the introduction is a statement that lists this as the most studied mechanism while also related to the material covered in class is apoptosis. P53 inducts apoptosis in the by intrinsic mitochondria-mediated pathway, also transcriptionally through pro-apoptotic parts of the pathway, and in a transcription–independent way which has been recently been looked further into. As if the roles above were not plentiful enough cytoplasmic p53 is also thought to influence autophagy, movement of vesicles, signal transduction, cell metabolism and possibly stem cell expansion, but all are truly determined. Towards the end of the introductory section the authors state that there are still many mechanisms of cytoplasmic p53’s activation leading to apoptosis that are uncertain as well as some p53 missense mutants that lead to oncogenesis. The authors express that the article mainly will speak about the proper or improper activities performed by p53 on the mechanism in the cytoplasm while also looking for areas where beneficial treatments may be used.
10) Weizmann Institute of Science: Death of a Cell, a discussion of one series of studies of cellular apoptosis
Apoptosis is a distinct form of a programmed cell death ( PCD) or cell suicide , first described by Kerr et. al. in the 1970s(1, 2). It is a normal physiological phenomenon that plays an important role in embryonic development, maintenance of tissue homeostasis and pathology(3) . Apoptosis triggered by exogenous and endogenous stimuli as radiation, oxidative stress and genotoxic chemicals. It is defined by characteristic changes in the nuclear morphology including chromatin condensation and fragmentation , overall cell shrinkage and formation of apoptotic cell bodies. Among the many markers of apoptosis, DNA fragmentation is...
All organisms are made of cells that grow by cell division. An adult human being consists of about 100000 billion cells. Dying cells are replaced by a large number of unceasingly dividing cells. A cell duplicates its chromosomes, segregates the chromosomes, and divides into two. These ordered sequences of events are called a cell cycle. 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Hartwell, Hunt, Nurse and 1998 Lasker Prizes in Basic Medical Research to Hartwell, Masui, Nurse have made important discoveries about the regulation of a cell cycle. Understanding the regulation of a cell cycle is seminal to understanding why and how cancer cells are formed. In this review, I focus on how these crucial discoveries made progress in understanding cell cycle regulation and leading to understanding cancer cell and cancer therapy.
Our body needs energy to carry out its functions properly. This energy is synthesized from the food we eat. Our body breaks down the food we take in and then build up the required materials for a healthy functioning of our body. Glucose, a simple sugar or monosaccharide that is the end product of carbohydrate digestion, is a primary source of energy for living things. (Taber’s, 2005). Glucose gets absorbed from our intestines and distributed by the bloodstream to all of the cells in our body. If the supply of glucose is more than required, our body stores the excess amount of glucose as glycogen, a chain of glucose. If there is shortage in other hand, our body uses the stored...
Throughout the years, apoptosis has been thoroughly studied and investigated by millions of scientists around the world. Throughout people’s knowledge of cells, the cell cycle, mitosis and meiosis, and viruses, there are still questions that we ask. These questions can range from why doesn’t a human continue to grow when we produce millions of cells, what happens to cells that fail the mitosis and meiosis checkpoints, and what happens to the cells that are infected by viruses. The answer to these common and educational questions is all in the process known as apoptosis. Apoptosis is the death of cells that occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development. The common questions that people ask about the cell process
...y are meant to do so. Other theories such as the free radical theory have more scientific evidence. A molecule produced by the digestive system, specifically originating in the mitochondria [Nelson, Nathan C. Nelson Department of Physics, Ohio State University]. These rogue radical molecules can destroy healthy cells, which contributes to the death of the entire organism. There are some older theories that date further back, such as the “Error and Repairs Theory, [Dr. Leslie Orgel, Salk Institute], which theorizes that through the process of cell division, too many deoxyribonucleic acid errors are produced for the organism to continue carrying out all life processes.
7. Mitochondria also regulate the self-destruction of cells and produce cholesterol and a component of hemoglobin called heme.
The basic structural and functional units of an organism are cells. They are the smallest living units in the human body. Over time, cells begin to experience changes associated with the process of aging. These changes occur slowly at first, but progressing over time. Aging cells are more susceptible to an increase in cellular damage, which can lead to abnormal cell function. As a result, cell division and replication occurs at a slower rate or may not occur at all in some cells. All cells con...
In every cell within an organism, the most crucial question is to survive or to die. In life, cell death is required so as to allow normal function. Cell death can be either physiological or programmed, in a process known as apoptosis. Cells that undergo apoptosis generally produce a wide range of morphological changes. These changes include shrinkage of cell, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation. Apoptosis occurs due to the presence of a family known as the caspases. Apoptotic cells are then cleared by phagocytosis in vivo, where phagocytes swallow up the dying cells and digest them. [1]