When one hears the word revolution, one often thinks of military uprisings, the falling of regimes, and massive shifts in thought. While violent political or substantial philosophical changes certainly are examples of revolution, they are not the only types of revolution out there. Therefore, a more comprehensive definition of revolution is needed. A revolution is simply a dynamic change that spurs subsequent future changes in a population or culture. Revolutions can effect many aspects of culture from religion to art and music. However, one of the most important and often overlooked areas in which revolutionary change can have a big impact on a culture or population is in the realm of medicine.
Revolutions in medicine in the last ~200 years
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From 1800-2013 the average global life expectancy more than doubled, increasing from 29 to 71 (Riley, 2005) (World Health Organization, 2013). Recent medical advancements have had a huge impact on other aspects of culture simply by increasing life expectancy. When people live longer, they can contribute to society more and potentially create revolutions of their own. Therefore, revolutions in medicine can have some of the largest influences on cultures in history. In recent past, the most revolutionary discoveries were the development of anesthesia, and the development of Germ Theory. These discoveries were major contributors to the increase in life expectancy seen in the last 200 years.
The development of anesthesia around the turn of the 19th century completely changed the face of medicine. Prior to the invention of anesthesia, surgeries were quick and brutal. Surgeons around the turn of the 19th century, such as British surgeon Robert Lister, were extremely quick at their work with procedures such amputations taking as short as 28 seconds (Webb, 2004). The surgeries had to be fast to prevent death from exsanguination and/or shock from the pain. With speeds that high and a lack of an understanding of sanitization techniques, post-operative
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Discovered through the work of surgeon Joseph Lister, physician Robert Koch and chemist Louis Pasteur, this idea, later called Germ Theory, led to a rapid series of discoveries that drastically improved life expectancy around the world (Harvard University, 2016). Prior to Germ Theory, doctors and surgeons thought that infections were caused by bad air, bad smells, or decaying organic matter (Harvard University, 2016). It wasn’t until the mid to late 1800’s that microorganisms were discovered to be the agents of infection. The discovery of microorganisms led Lister to develop the first antiseptic surgical techniques which “dramatically reduced [postoperative] infection rates” (Harvard University, 2016). The discovery that microorganisms were the root cause of infection was revolutionary because it led to additional medical advances such as antibiotics and vaccines that, in turn, had (and continue to have) their own impacts on society.
The discovery of Germ Theory eventually led to the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin, by Alexander Fleming in 1928 (Nobelprize.org, 2014). The development of the first commercially available antibiotics led to a massive drop in infection-related death rates in common procedures such as routine childbirth as seen in Figure
Penicillin, derived from the mold Penicillium, is the first antibiotic to successfully treat bacterial infections on humans. It was accidentally discovered by scientist, Alexander Fleming. While Fleming was growing Staphylococcus, a serious and often deadly infection, in a dish, he noticed the bacteria had stopped growing after a mold found its way
The contributions of several doctors, researchers, and scientists helped improve the health of the growing population. In 1850 the average life expectancy was 42 years. By 1910 the average life expectancy had risen to nearly 55 years. Between 1850 and 1910 there were several advances in the medical field. The introduction of genes, white blood cells, blood groups, insulin, rubber gloves, aspirin, and vitamins and the discoveries of Pasteur, Charcot, Halsted, Zirm, Lister, and Koch were the starting point of an international fight against disease.
In medicine there were many things that changed and some that stayed the same between 1350 and 1750. Initially I will be looking at medicine and treatment in the Ancient World as a prelude to its importance during the Renaissance period, and also the influence it may have had in the Middle Ages.
Anesthesia, “We take it for granted that we can sleep through operations without feeling any pain. But until about 150 years ago, the operating room was a virtual torture chamber because surgeons had no way to prevent the pain caused by their healing knives.”
Most of these medical advances were a result and were an influence of World War I. Probably one of the most important medical advances was the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by a Scottish, microbiologist named Alexander Fleming, he had actually accidently discovered it, when he noticed that a bacteria culture he had been growing, had stopped, he realized that it had been contaminated by a rare form of mold called Penicillin and that it had killed the bacteria.
Anesthesia was not used in surgeries until 1846, so prior to that the patient was completely conscious when they operated on him or her, unless the patient passed out from pain. Patients were unwilling to be cut into while they were awake: “Dragged unwillingly or carried from the ward to the operating theatre by a couple of hospital attendants (in Edinburgh a large wicker basker was used for this purpose) the patient was laid on the operating table and if necessary strapped down” (Youngson 27). The tools used in surgeries can be seen here. Anesthetics Anesthetics were not used in surgery until October 16, 1846, at Massachusetts General Hospital (Youngson 51). Anesthesia is an inhaled gas known as ether.
Thatcher, V.S. (1953) History of Anesthesia, With Emphasis on the Nurse Specialist. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.
As you can see Joseph Lister made great strides in the area of surgery and antiseptic. Without his research and experiments hospitals would still be places where most people went to die. Thanks to Lister and many others hospitals are now the clean and safe places that we go to heal. We no longer need to fear dying from simple procedures or looking up to see a doctor dressed in bloody clothes preparing to perform surgeries. Is it any wonder that Joseph Lister gained the title of the Father of Modern Medicine?
In the 1700’s things were very different to life today; this included the medicine of the time. The idea of medicine came from the Greeks and they came up with the four humours (consisting of water, fire, air and earth.) By the 1840’s most anaesthetics were accepted as James Simpson presented a powerful case for them; however they didn’t make surgery safer and the amount of people dying from operations increased. The final breakthrough for anaesthetics was when Queen Victoria accepted the use of Chloroform during the delivery of her eighth child. Even though being anesthetised was less painful surgeons did not take any precautions to protect open wounds and infections were spread by the reuse of old bandages!
In the early 1800’s, before the use of anesthesia, many patients with life threatening issues would forgo surgery and choose the permanent path of death rather than undergo a painful, emotionally scarring procedure such as surgery before anesthesia. When surgeries did take place, they would be performed on the top floors of hospitals so that the other patients couldn’t hear the screams. More than 8,000 anesthesia-free operations were performed in the Ether Dome at Mass General Hospital, coincidentally the birthplace of the first surgery “without pain” (Mass General).
Anesthesia is used in almost every single surgery. It is a numbing medicine that numbs the nerves and makes the body go unconscious. You can’t feel anything or move while under the sedative and are often delusional after being taken off of the anesthetic. Believe it or not, about roughly two hundred years ago doctors didn’t use anesthesia during surgery. It was rarely ever practiced. Patients could feel everything and were physically held down while being operated on. 2It wasn’t until 1846 that a dentist first used an anesthetic on a patient going into surgery and the practice spread and became popular (Anesthesia). To this day, advancements are still being made in anesthesiology. 7The more scientists learn about molecules and anesthetic side effects, the better ability to design agents that are more targeted, more effective and safer, with fewer side effects for the patients (Anesthesia). Technological advancements will make it easier to read vital life signs in a person and help better decide the specific dosages a person needs.
The American Civil Rights Movement, which was defined by a variety of action aimed at eliminating systemic racial injustice, came to prominence in the middle of the 20th century. The impact of radical African American activity on the course and results of the Civil Rights Movement will be investigated in this essay. This article will show how the acts of radical groups like the Black Panther Party, Malcolm X, and others disrupted the existing quo and broadened the movement by examining their contributions. This paper will make the case that, even in the broader context of civil rights activism, radical African American activism was crucial for advocating radical change, while also appreciating the movement's diversity. The paper seeks to clarify
Besides the computer revolution, medical advances have caused tension between faith and reason. The medical advances of the Twentieth Century have many beneficial effects for humanity. Diseases that used to be dangerous or life threatening, like mumps, measles, and whooping cough, are no longer worries in todays medical world. Tetanus, typhoid, and the bubonic plaque can now be treated with antibiotics or other medicines. Vaccines, especially the polio vaccine, freed many people from the effects of a disease. Advances in heart surgery and organ transplants have saved many lives. Anesthetics and painkillers have been made to reduce or eliminate pain during surgery or a painful disease. Advances in cancer and AIDS have also been made, although many of the details of these diseases are yet to be learned.
At his Nobel Peace Prize speech in 1945, Alexander Fleming warned against the misuse of antibiotics and the fact that by doing this, one allows the bacteria to ‘become educated’ and therefore become resistant to the antibiotic. It is believed that the first cases of antibiotic resistance were shortly after this speech. (Fleming, 1945)
From the beginning of time, human life has faced problems with diseases and health care. Ancient ailments have been with mankind as far as man can remember, such as arthritis and, infectious bone disease found in fossilized bones and Egyptian mummies, indicating its existence. Then a human life span was only 20-30years, chronic illnesses were rare and preventative medicine primarily consisted of warding off evil spirits by painting the body or sometimes even mutilating it (Mitchell, Heroun 37). As time went on and new “tools” better described as “technology” is created and applied the everyday use in many ways. For example; in the 1600’s the invention of the printing press quickly allowed for new books and information to be widely distributed. By the 18th century progress increased due to the rapid sharing of knowledge from one to the next. With the knowledge of many experiments and studies came the philosophy of “enlightenment” witch took on a more rational approach to problems and knowledge that can be read (Mitchell, Heroun 39). the In the early 19th century preventive medicine made great strides as the average human lifespan increased from 40 years in 1850 to 70 years in1950. As advances were m...