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Term Paper On Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer research paper
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The prostate gland is the largest accessory sex gland . it is found at the base of the bladder and it encircles the prostatic urethra. This gland secretes prostatic fluid that makes up 30% of the semen into urethra contributing to sperm motility and viability. The prostate is classified as a tubulo- alvelolar gland having two distinctive units the epithelium and stroma. The constituents of the stroma are fibroblast , Smooth muscle cells and collagen. The epithelium is mainly simple columnar secretor. In the stromal compartment there are sparse neuroendocine cells (45). The prostate epithelial cells are either classified as basal or luminal. the basal cells are characterized by set or markers mainly cytokeratin 5, 14 and p63 . However, a …show more content…
Prostate cancer is a hormone depended tumor that is capable to metastasis to different organs. Before metastasis, prostate cancer cells undergo EMT a process that enhances these cells to acquire an aggressive phenotype. In EMT the cells modify their adhesive property in order to facilitate movement. the cell reorganize their actin cytoskeleton and acquire migratory microstructures like lamellipodia, filopodia and podosomes.[ref29] . EMT is characterized molecular changes that reflects gene expression . cells undergoing EMT show different expressions of junctional proteins. Ecadherins is replaced by N-chadherin in prostate cancer [ref 31] . EMT is also characterized by increase in the intermediate filament vimentin (ref 34) .Slug is shown to play a role in controlling the mesenchymal differentiation. Hence the increase of slug expresion is a marker for EMT [ref 33]. The transcription factor twist is also another regulator of EMT. High levels of twist are correlated to decrease in E-cadherin and enhancement in metastatic ability . (ref 35). Another important determintant to asses EMT is the increase in the expression of the transcription factor SNAIL . Snail represses further the expression of e-cadherin and promoting for mesenchymal phenotype . it is assessed as a marker in invasive carcinomas (36). Zeb is another family of transcription factors that is one of the basic markers of …show more content…
Then it was shown to be expressed in normal tissues as well as malignancy tissues. It is a major regulator of smooth muscle tone and calcium uptake (39). Studies have shown that parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrp) is vital in inducing EMT in DU145 prostate cancer cells overexpressing PTHrp [ref9]. This hormone enhances cancer progression binding to a cell surface receptor or a nuclear receptor. Hence its mode of action is through paracrine , autocrine and intracrine pathways [ref24]. PTHrp through its receptor have been confirmed to play a role in prostate to bone metastasis. Invivo studies in mouse models showed that human cell lines transfected with (PTHrp) showed skeletal progression of the cancer . Hence, there is a direct correlation between the expression level of PTHrp and prostate to bone metastasis [ref
The testes produce sperm and sex hormones, testosterone. Surrounding each testis is a coiled tube called the epididymis, which collects and stores sperm, very much similar to that of a human. Before ejaculation a seminal fluid is added by the seminal vesicles, to prevent the sperm from drying out.
In order to study the gene mutation that is supposed to cause Paget’s Bone Disease researchers had to have viable candidates to host the gene mutation. They found the best candidate to host the gene mutation in mice so they implanted the gene mutation in embryos of mice offspring. The researchers hypothesized that p62P394L is sufficient to induce PDB, especially since the p62 gene is responsible for encoding 62 kDa protein which functions in signaling osteoclast precursors. Results were found by fixing the first through fifth lumbar vertebra of four, eight, and twelve month old homozygote, heterozygote and WT littermates in 10% buffered formalin for 24- 48 hours. The first through fourth vertebra were then completely decalcified while the fifth was not. Longitudinal sections of both decalcified and undecalcified vertebra were cut, mounted on glass slides and stained to analyze. The mice with p62P394L had histologically normal bones, indicating that p62 mutation is not enough to induce Paget’s disease of the bone in vivo, there are additional factors necessary. Knowing osteitis deformas is due to hyper responsive multinucleated osteoclasts, it seemed a sensible suggestion. However, there are many other variables that should be factored when considering possible causes for osteoclast hyperformation. If p62P349L is present, doesn’t necessarily mean a person will get PDB, though an environmental factor such as measles could easily open up transduction pathways that could eventually lead to pagetic bone lesions. We find this study to be a stepping stone for future researchers to use in order to actually identify what causes Paget’s bone disease. (Hiruma, Kurihara, Subler, Zhou, Boykin, Zhang, Ishizuka, Dempster, Roodman & Wi...
Ke J, Wu X, Wu X, He X, Lian L, Zou Y, et al. A subpopulation of CD24(+) cells in colon cancer cell lines possess stem cell characteristics. Neoplasma. 2012;59(3):282-8.
Altman, Lawrence K. ìShark Substance Found to Limit Tumor Growth.î New York Times 1 May 1996: A15.
...plicates the identification of the loss of tumor suppressor gene (TSG) is epigenetic changes in the gene promoter. Hypomethylation of DNA and hyperacetylation of histones in the promoter region leads to successful transcription of the DNA. Therefore, any alteration in either of the two will disrupt the gene transcription.
Prostate cancer has been the number one diagnosed cancer today. According to the World Health Organization, approximately one in every ten American men will develop prostate cancer during his lifespan. This cancer has been very common in the last few years. American Cancer Society reported over 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer. Huge number of population suffered severely. The prostate is significant for reproduction. It helps the substances that are involved in fertilization and transporting of sperm as well as survival. Prostate tumor is developed in the prostate gland, which is found in the men’s reproductive system. Prostate is the size of a walnut, which is located inferiorly in the penis and anterior to the rectum. It contains the connective tissue, which includes the glandular and fibrous tissues. This tumor starts to develop during their adolescent year due to the control of the male reproductive hormones. When the tumor starts to develop, it begins at the urethra, which is a tube that releases the urine from the bladder. The tumor is a slow development yet it is contagious to the other parts of the body, such as it does affect the pelvic bones, lungs, liver, and the lower vertebrae (Zenka, 2009).
Testicular cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the male’s testicles first then spreads to other parts of the body. It most commonly spreads to the lymph nodes after it spreads throughout the testicles. Testicles are part of the male’s reproductive system that makes testosterone, the male hormone, and sperm. It is treatable and can usually be cured. The signs of testicular cancer are lumps, swelling, and pain in your testicles. You can check for these lumps yourself, but it is better and more important to check with your doctor for lumps annually. Testicular cancer isn’t caused by much, but there are some risks.
In 2014, Bladder cancer caused 15,580 deaths in the United States. It can affect anyone, but most commonly affects older individuals (National Cancer Institute, 2014). Bladder cancer usually grows on the inside layer of the bladder and can spread to other parts of the body, regrow, and even cause death. Cancer begins with cells that make up the different tissues of the body. Normally, the body’s cells grow and replace themselves at a reasonable rate, on an as-needed basis. Sometimes, the cell growth/replenishment process can get a little out of control and the body doesn’t need the cells that it is producing. When this happens, a mass or tumor can form within that tissue. Tumors can be benign, or malignant. When a tumor is benign, it is not as harmful as a malignant tumor. Malignant cancers can metastasize, regrow after removal, or even cause death. There are specific symptoms, risk factors, causes and several different treatment options for bladder cancer.
Bone homeostasis occurs when the bones are being “remodelled” or it is also known as “bone metabolism” this is the process in which new bone is created and the old bone which was there was removed, it is more common to see this process in younger growing children or adults who have broken any bones.
However some of the basic bone functions include storing of crucial nutrients, minerals and lipids, producing red blood cells for the body, protect the organs such as heart, ribs and the brain, aide in movement and also to act as a buffer for pH. With the differences in all of the bones there are four things that remain the same in each bone, their cells. Bones are made up of four different cells; osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes and bone lining cells. Osteoblasts produce and secrete matrix proteins and then transport the minerals into the matrix. Osteoclasts are responsible for the breaking down of tissue. The osteoblasts and osteoclasts are both responsible for remodeling and rebuilding of bones as we grow and age. The production of osteoclasts for resorption is initiated by the hormone, the parathyroid hormone. Osteocytes are the mature versions of osteoblasts because they are trapped in the bone matrix they produced. The osteocytes that are trapped continue making bone to help with strength and the health of the bone matrix. The bone lining cells are found in the inactive bone surfaces which are typically found in
Testosterone is a hormone secreted from the sex organs stimulating and controlling the development and maintenance of male and female characteristics (Nieschlag & Behre, 1990). Research has been conducted into the influence of testosterone and its effect on the expression of social behaviour (Booth et al, 2006). Testosterone contributes to the display of aggression, dominance, antisocial behaviour, risk taking, initiative driven behaviour, courtship behaviour and sexual drive. However within those behaviours there remains questions which as yet we cannot answer.
A kind of sexual dysfunction that affect men is generally termed as erectile dysfunction or impotence. As a result, the person will not be able to develop or maintain an erection of the penis during sexual intercourse. The term and condition is familiar for most of the people in the current society. It can be considered as one of the main causes for infertility issues. Studies have also found another surprising fact that, worse erectile dysfunction may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease and ischemic heart disease etc. All these tend to recommend an early test and diagnosis for mild and moderate levels of erectile dysfunction in individuals. Before that, it is vital that you must understand what is erectile dysfunction and how could you identify it.
The human male reproductive system organs are located outside of the body around the pelvic region of a male (wikipedia, 2010). The testes produce sperm that would fertilize the female’s egg. Males have several secondary genitalia’s the penis, sperm ducts, epididymis, vas deferens and the urethra. The urethra is used for two purposes to urine and to ejaculate semen. Males also have accessory glands such as the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands. The prostate gland contributes fluid for ejaculation. Prostate fluids helps to nourish the sperm (Web Md, 2009). The seminal vesicle makes up most of the volume of a man's ejaculatory fluid and provide the sperm with nutrients that give the sperm energy(Web Md, 2009). Bulbourethral glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra ...
Moreover, different cytokines play a crucial role in controlling bone remodeling. It has been revealed that the main regulatory cytokines are RANKL, RANK, OPG, M-CSF, IGF-I, IGF-II, TGF-β, interleukin1 (IL-1), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-α) (52).Generally, there is a group of cytokines that is responsible for regulation of osteoblasts including IL-1, 3, 7, 10, 13,TNF-α and interferon-γ. While IL-1, 3, 4, 6–8, 10–13, 15, 17, 18, 23, TNF-α, OPG, leukocyte inhibition factor (LIF), M-CSF, and interferon-g are involved in the regulation of osteoclasts
Testosterone is a hormone mainly produced in male even though in women, the hormone is produced at a lower quantity. This hormone is responsible for the development of masculine characteristics in men. It is produced in the testes, the male reproductive glands. This hormone is not only necessary for maintaining a healthy sex life in adults but it is also required for the overall health of men. Hence, any slight changes in the testosterone hormone levels can create a lot of health related and sex related issues in men. It is thus necessary to check the testosterone hormone levels regularly.