Physiology of Exercise Class
Assignment #3 Chapter 3
1. Define the terms aerobic and anaerobic.
A: Aerobic – Oxidative formation of ATP by the use of O2.
Anaerobic – Formation of ATP via the PC pathway and glycolysis that doesn’t involve the use of O2. (Exercise Physiology Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance by Scott K. Powers & Edward T. Howley pg 29)
2. Discuss the function of glycolysis in bioenergetics. What role does NAD play in glycolysis?
A: Glycolysis is an anaerobic pathway used to transfer bond energy
from glucose to rejoin Pi to ADP. NAD is the hydrogen acceptor. (p 29 & 30)
3. How is bioenergetics controlled? What are rate-limiting enzymes and how do they operate?
A: Regulation of one or more enzymes in a biochemical pathway would provide a means of controlling. A rate-limiting enzyme is one enzyme in a metabolic pathway that determines the speed of the particular metabolic pathway involved. (p. 39 & 40)
4. What are high-energy phosphates? Explain the statement that "ATP is the universal energy donor."
A: High-energy phosphates are the immediate source of energy for muscular contractions. ATP is often called the universal energy donor and serves to couple the energy released from the breakdown of foodstuffs into a usable form of energy required by all cells. (p 28)
5. Discuss the interaction of anaerobic vs aerobic ATP production during exercise.
A: The contribution of anaerobic ATP production is greater in short term, high intense activity while aerobic ATP metabolism predominates in longer activities. (Pg 41)
6. Define the following terms: coupled reactions, organic reactions, exergonic reactions, endergonic reactions, and bioenergetics.
A: Coupled reactions – Reactions that are linked, with the liberation of free energy in one reaction being used to “drive” a second reaction. (p 24)
Organic reactions – Reactions that contain carbon. (p 22)
Exergonic reactions – Reactions that give off energy as a result of the chemical process. (p 24)
Endergonic reactions – Reactions that require energy be added to the reactants. (p 24)
Bioenergetics – Chemical pathways that are capable of converting foodstuffs into a biologically usable form of energy. (p 24)
7. Explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
A: 1) The first law of thermodynamics is energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
2) The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that you can never have a 100% efficient energy conversion, i.e., there must always be waste heat (Actually, it states "In a closed system, the total entropy will always increase or stay the same".
The ATP is used for many cell functions including transport work moving substances across cell membranes. It is also used for mechanical work, supplying the energy needed for muscle contraction. It supplies energy not only to heart muscle (for blood circulation) and skeletal muscle (such as for gross body movement), but also to the chromosomes and flagella to enable them to carry out their many functions. A major role of ATP is in chemical work, supplying the needed energy to synthesize the multi-thousands of types of macromolecules that the cell needs to exist. ATP is also used as an on-off switch both to control chemical reactions and to send messages.
That is when muscles switch from aerobic respiration to lactic acid fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation is the process by which muscle cells deal with pyruvate during anaerobic respiration. Lactic acid fermentation is similar to glycolysis minus a specific step called the citric acid cycle. In lactic acid fermentation, the pyruvic acid from glycolysis is reduced to lactic acid by NADH, which is oxidized to NAD+. Lactic acid fermentation allows glycolysis to continue by ensuring that NADH is returned to its oxidized state (NAD+). When glycolysis is complete, two pyruvate molecules are left. Normally, those pyruvates would be changed and would enter the mitochondrion. Once in the mitochondrion, aerobic respiration would break them down further, releasing more
The community in question consists of families living close to or below the poverty line, and many of these families are single parent households with multiple children in the home. The majority of the individuals within this community are minorities without a complete High School education and the unemployment rate is high. There is a large homeless population, as well as a significant invisible homeless population. The invisible homeless are those individuals and families that bounce around staying with friends or family members and in hotels but do not have a permanent residence or address. The crime rate within this community is high and so is the prevalence of substance abuse.
The close reading is from The Odyssey by Homer in book nine lines 1-33. In this paper, one could see Odysseus goes full circle of emotions throughout the lines. Before this book starts Odysseus was lead to the palace of Alcinous, the king of the Phaeacians. Once he was there he plead for help from the Queen to get back to his land. The King thought Odysseus was a god but Odysseus put that to rest by saying he was a mortal. That evening, while the King and Queen were talking to Odysseus, the Queen noticed that he was wearing her daughter’s clothes. This lead to him being questioned by the Queen. At the end of the questioning the Queen was so impressed by him that the King offers Odysseus his daughter’s hand in marriage. The next morning, they
Although the power has shifted back and forth from stronger decentralized government to a dominant centralized government, the balance between the two has yet to fall completely. Thanks to the limitations the Founders installed into our Constitution, there has yet a time where the states or national government has the total power to control the nation as a whole. We call this type of government system as the federal system. In a federal system, there are different but separate levels of government who has their own powers. Furthermore, in order to ensure that the centralized government is not oppressing the states there are also limitations on certain national powers (McDaniel and Shaw, 2014). However, through the various Supreme Court controversial cases, we see that the Supreme Court is giving the states the choice to legalize or not laws such as same-sex marriage and gun control. Yet on the other hand, states have increasingly depended on the national government for funding various activities such as educational funds and national security funds (Kollman, 2013). Since states have to rely on the national government for the various funding, it seems as if the national government essentially has the upper hand over what the fifty states can and cannot do.
been a recent trend of devolution, the shift to greater states rights (Miller, 9/10/15). There
Debates over how the division of powers between the states and federal government should be handled have been predominant from the very beginning. The founders understood that this decision would have an enduring influence on the types of policies implemented along with how the impact would be felt by the citizens. This would all be dependent on if the laws were coming from Washing D.C. or the state capitals (Barbour and Wright, 78). In light of this the founders established the United States government based on a fair division of powers between Federal and State governments as highlighted in the constitution and tenth amendment. However, in the past few years I believe the country has shifted towards giving more power to the federal government. In this paper I argue that despite the current transition towards a strong centralized government a balanced system based on the federalism intended by founders is the best option for the distribution of power.
Federalism is the form of government in the united states where separate states are united under one central authority but with specific powers granted to both components in a written constitution .Patrick Henry coined the word in 1788 when, during the Virginia ratification convention debates over the proposed U.S Constitution ,he angrily asked, “Is this federalism?.’’ In 1787 the constitution replaced it with another, more balanced, version that has worked for over two centuries. During the time, however the history of federalism has been incessantly disrupted by a constant debate between those who wanted to enlarge the central government and those who demanded that states’ rights be strictly respected and even expanded.
Federalism or “federal” ties around a system of government. It controls armies, declares wars, coins money, and regulate trade between states and foreign nations, and treaties (Mrs, Crouse’s powerpoint pg:3 num:9). Specifically this was created to organize the powers that exist in the system of government so everything can be organized. It also divides the power among a central government and several regional governments (Mrs, Crouse’s powerpoint pg:2 num:8). More ever Since everything passes through one system it had to be divided into 3 sections: delegated powers, implied powers, and inherited powers.
The current state of federalism in the United States is of one of peril, plagued with recent Supreme Court rulings, current debates over the devolution of Federal powers, and variance in State governing. The United States has always been troubled with the role of the Federal government V. State government on numerous issues. Since around the time of the Great Depression, the federal government was charged with the taking care of the American public in many social and economic matters. Congress was then granted by the Supreme Court almost complete power in passing any sort by legislation by relating it somehow to the Commerce Clause. The Commerce Clause found in Section 8, Article I, United States Constitution, states that Congress may regulate any and all commerce between foreign nations and the states. Congress simply related almost all legislature in some way to intrastate commerce, therefore making the passing of their legislation constitutional. This system was greatly used by Congress for almost sixty years, when, in the late nineteen-eighties and early nineteen-nineties many individuals and special interests groups challenged the constitutionally of these laws passed by Congress using the Commerce Clause. In several cases, such as United States v. Lopez, Congress was dealt a powerful blow and the states seemed to gain an upper hand. In a 5-4 decision, the Court ruled that Congress had exceeded its authority under the Commerce Clause by enacting the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990. This, along with many other laws repealed by the Supreme Court, weakened Federal control and gave power back to the states, a grievous mistake in my opinion. This increased the strains on the role of federalism in the United States and once again brought up the question, who has the power to govern what? In addition to this, federalism has taken a frightful turn with the current debates of devolution, or returning power to the states. Many current Congressmen and citizens alike believe that states should have a greater level of sovereignty and that federal power should be weakened so as to strengthen state governments. In contrast, many others believe that the Federal government should be allowed more power. This and other conflicting ideas have lead to a constant strain on the abilities of the government to best carry out its duties.
“With the exception of nutrition, more fallacies exist in the area of exercise than in any other area of health” (Dintiman, Stone, Pennington, & Davis, 1984). Exercise produces significant physical and mental benefits and is extremely vital to life. It substantially improves stamina, strengthens and tones muscles, helps prevent diseases, enhances flexibility, controls weight, and prolongs the quality of life. In order to gain all the benefits from exercise and be truly healthy, it is very important to understand and take action with both types of exercise: anaerobic and aerobic. With the combination of aerobic and anaerobic exercise, an individual will greatly increase their overall health and wellness significantly.
The U.S. Constitution creates a unique system of federalism. It is a system of government that divides power between a central governmental unit and local administrations. In this way, both central and local governments enjoy sovereignty. However, because the two governments share authority over the same territory, it may be problematic to establish the division of their powers. The central power needs to exercise its authority without infringing the authority of a local government while local governments should not encroach on national interests. The American federalism is defined by the Constitution which establishes the separation of power between federal and state governments, but throughout history, federalism has experienced a number
This form of chemical reaction is known as a single displacement reaction and is exothermic. The reaction is irreversible and is written as:
Reactions occur when the particles of reactants collide together continuously. If they collide with sufficient energy, then they will react. The minimum amount of kinetic energy required for particles at the time of collision is called the activation energy and this theory is known as the ?collision theory?.
In the liver and muscles, glycogen is produced from glucose by glycogenesis. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles glucose levels are low. When blood glucose levels are low, epinephrine and glucagon are secreted stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis). If there is an immediate need for energy upon glucose entering the cell, then glycoysis usually takes place. The end products of glycolysis are pyruvic acid and ATP. Since glycolysis releases small amounts ATP, further reactions continue to convert pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA and then citric acid in the citric acid cycle. The majority of the ATP is made from oxidations in the citric acid cycle in connection with the electron transport chain (3). This is how normal glucose metabolism takes place (figure-1).