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Eukaryotic cell introduction
Describe the hypothesized steps in the origin of eukaryote cells
Eukaryotic cell introduction
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Mitochondria originally existed as a single celled organism, but were then engulfed by a eukaryotic cell. Thereafter, these organisms displayed an endosymbiosis relationship. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the maternal parent. Due to this fact, mtDNA is a useful molecule for studying point mutations, because there is no crossing over in mtDNA. Furthermore, the point of this lab was to analyze how mtDNA changes over time and from the changes in the mtDNA determine material linage and haplogroup. In this experiment, the hyper variable region I was analyzed to determine the haplogroup and the haplotype of a specific individual. Mitochondrial DNA was extracted, amplified, purified, and then ran through a gel. The 1% agarose gel displayed that
The unknown bacterium that was handed out by the professor labeled “E19” was an irregular and raised shaped bacteria with a smooth texture and it had a white creamy color. The slant growth pattern was filiform and there was a turbid growth in the broth. After all the tests were complete and the results were compared the unknown bacterium was defined as Shigella sonnei. The results that narrowed it down the most were the gram stain, the lactose fermentation test, the citrate utilization test and the indole test. The results for each of the tests performed are listed in Table 1.1 below.
The gels were run at 90-100 volts for 1-1.5 hours. Upon completion of the experiment, we were able to examine the DNA. First, the electrophorese. revealed that three of the fourteen samples were homozygous while the other eleven were
In this lab we are measuring the amount of oxygen used in both germinating and non germinating peas. We are measuring the oxygen consumption by taking a reading of a respirometer submerged in two water baths. The first bath will be cold water and the second warm to determine the effect of temperatures on oxygen consumption. Our negative control will be glass beads to measure to increase or decrease in atmospheric pressure or temperature changes. There is a direct relationship between oxygen consumption and Carbon Dioxide produced, therefore the more O2 consumed the more CO2 produced. To keep the amount of CO2 produced from canceling out any pressure gained or lost from the consumption of CO2 we are adding KOH(Potassium Hydroxide) to the respirometers. Since the CO2 will be selectively removed the change in the volume of gas in the respirometer should be directly related to the oxygen consumed. In this experiment the germinating peas, in both water baths, should consume much more oxygen than the non-germinating peas or the glass beads, because germination has began thus accelerating cellular reactions and the rate of respiration. The cold water bath should slow the respiration down in all three respirometers.
Nick Lane aims to inform his readers about mitochondria by providing several examples of the uses of them. He gives several intriguing examples such as the origins of mitochondria, the possible use of mitochondria in fertility treatments, and how they could potentially be used to identify corpses. Lane provides a detailed background on mitochondria: how they formed a successful symbiotic relationship with eukaryotic cells and how mitochondria and their use for cell-independent energy generation was arguably one of the biggest developments in the evolution of simple eukaryotic cells into complex eukaryotic cells. Lane devotes a large part of the start of Power, Sex, Suicide on what he calls “The Quest for a Progenitor” (what Lane calls an ancestor to the eukaryotic cell). He presents many different theories to how the first eukaryotic cell came to being, to which he then explains his agreement or disagreement in great detail. One particular theory he discusses is the Cavalier-Smith theory of ‘primitive amitochondriates’ which in other words focuses on some very old eukaryotes that according to Lane preceded the eukaryotic merger that resulted in the possible production of mitochondria as well as the origin of complex eukaryotes. The conclusion of part
contained mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), completely intact. Mitochondrial DNA is tougher than the DNA found in cell nuclei; it is also found in the cytoplasm of a fertilized egg and is passed only through maternal lineage. This makes it much easier for the team to study and makes testing more accurate.
Some symptoms of mitochondrial diseases are subtle while others are lifelong and easily noticable. Mitochondrial disease can either be adult-onset or child-onset; usually childhood mitochondrial disease is more astringent “and includes progressive neurological, cardiac, and liver dysfunction.” An expansive array of symptoms may be apparent in childhood mitochondrial disease, “including lethargy, hypotonia, failure to thrive, seizures, cardiomyopathy, deafness, blindness, movement disorder, and lactic acidosis.” On the other hand, most patients with mitochondrial disease do not display very discernible symptoms. Most recognizable symptoms can usually be attributed to other causes; however, further analysis may lead to mitochondrial mutations being the definitive cause, especially these symptoms within the following systems. Mitochondrial diseases of the central nervous system or the peripheral nervous system usually show the stereotypical childhood symptoms, such as “developmental delay or regression, seizures, and movement disorders.” In adult-onset mitochondrial disease, symptoms would instead involve stroke or stroke-like episodes. Symptomatic or nonsymptomatic peripheral neuropathy may be revealed upon “phys¬ical examination or through nerve conduction studies.” Due to mitochondrial maladies within the auditory system, sensorineural deafness due to cochlear dysfunction and dysfunction of mitochondria within cranial nerve VIII may occur. Because ocular muscles contain the “highest density of mitochondria per cell of any type of muscle and thus use large amounts of adenosine triphosphate, mitochondrial disease within the ocular system are rather abundant. Symptoms of these ocular syndromes include progressive external ophthalmop...
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration. By the process of diffusion oxygen enters the cells from the blood or from the surroundings. Mitochondria that are present inside the cell use this oxygen for respiration and energy production. Mitochondria are therefore called the powerhouses of a cell. Mitochondria are absent in prokaryotes. In these organisms cell membranes take care of energy reduction in similar reactions due to the extremely small size mitochondria cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope. However, they can be viewed under an electron microscope, a microscope with high magnification and resolution, employing electron beams in place of light and using electron lenses. Mitochondria are fat like structures present in
They are five to 10 micrometers long and one to .5 micrometers wide. They main
In an article concerning Familial DNA Testing, A. Pattock (2011) examines the methods involved in DNA testing. Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), are non-coding genes that have stretches of varying numbers where copies of genetic sequences appear (p.854). STRs are identifiable quantities that can be used as a marker to make the comparison. Each STR forms an allele, which is part of a gene that is formed by a mutation and is found in the same position on a chromosome in every human (p.855). The loci, or fixed position, are the key to using alleles for DNA identification. Although all of the STR alleles put together comprise completely different people, not all of the STRs are unique. Because of this, multiple STR alleles need to be dissected (p.855, 856).
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have the likenesses with microscopic organisms that prompted the endosymbiont hypothesis. This hypothesis expresses that an early a castor of eukaryotic cell inundated an ocygen utilizing nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell. In the long run, the overwhelmed cell shaped an association with the host cell in which it was en shut, turning into an endosymbiont. Through the span of advancement the host cell and its endosymbiont converged into a solitary living being, an eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion. As opposed to being limited by a solitary layer like organelles of the endomembrane framework, mitochondria and common chloroplasts have two layers encompassing them. Evidence the hereditary overwhelmed prokaryotes
Cellular membranes are vulnerable under extreme conditions due either to a barrier to diffusion caused by the hot conditions or expanding when it’s too cold due to the hydrogen bonding. To experiment and make observations about the membranes vulnerability beets were used. For the experiment to take place the beets were all cut out using a cork and were the same size for accurate results. The tubes were then placed under different temperatures to observe the visual, qualitative observation and then spectrophotometer was used to find the actual absorbance. The color intensity showed that the tube exposed to the most heat and most cold were both the most intense, but the absorbance showed that the extreme exposure to the cold had the
I do not associate myself with any traditional religion, but sometimes when I discover some historical or scientific anomaly I stop to wonder at the beauty of the universe. Recently, while reading The Gene by Siddhartha Mukherjee, I stumbled upon the idea of ‘Mitochondrial Eve’. This is a theory—the term Mitochondrial Eve refers to a person—that all humans alive today have one common great great great great… …great grandmother. I had heard this idea before but had not understood how mystically intriguing the basis of the theory is. Mitochondria, the powerplants of eukaryotic cells, originated (according to current understanding) from the symbiosis of an early eukaryotic precursor and a specialized energy-producing bacterium. Thus, each mitochondrion has its own genome separate from the nucleus of its “host” cell. Mitochondrial DNA is often used to determine human origins because it is not subject to the recombination that affects the 23 chromosomes in the nucleus—mitochondrial genomes are an untampered historic record of every single mutation in human
Lab Work Not Included The purpose of completing this lab was to observe how microscopes function. The invention & evolution of the microscope has been an ongoing process since the Middle Ages, when the first convex magnifying lenses were introduced. In 1590, the Jansen Brothers invented the first compound microscope (two or more lenses). However, Antony van Leevenwenhoek created the first “true” microscope, in 1665, with 300x magnification & unbelievable resolution.
The Cell, the fundamental structural unit of all living organisms. Some cells are complete organisms, such as the unicellular bacteria and protozoa, others, such as nerve, liver, and muscle cells, are specialized components of multicellular organisms. In another words, without cells we wouldn’t be able to live or function correctly. There are Animal Cells and Plant Cells. In Biology class the other day we studied the Animal Cell. We were split into groups of our own and we each picked a different animal cell slide to observe. My group chose the slide,'; Smeared Frog Blood ';.
...e mitochondria and possible contribution to mutagenesis through reduced replication fidelity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, 4990-4995