Medical Gaze

Chapter one

‘Social and political history of the gaze’

The ‘gaze’, as described in the Oxford English Dictionary:

Gaze [Verb] Look steadily and intently

especially in admiration, surprise, or

throught: ‘he could only gaze at her in

astonishment’ [Noun] A steady intent

look: ‘he turned, following her gaze’

‘offices screened from the public gaze’

During the last few centuries many prominent figures in their fields of study have examined the ‘gaze’. These include philosophers, sociologists, ’neurologists and psychoanalysis’s, under the headings; ‘The system of power and the gaze’ (philosophy), ‘The Male gaze’ and ‘The Imperial gaze’ (Sociology) and Scopophilia (’neurology, psychology and psychotherapy). The term ‘gaze’ was generalised by French

psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan whilst developing his theorem of ‘the mirror stage’-this theory looked at the subject and how they appeared to achieve a sense of mastery by looking upon one’s self as ideal ego. By using himself as the main subject and viewing his reflection within the mirror, the subject at the mirror stage begins their ingress into the language and culture which was established by his own self subjectivity due to the appearance within the mirror, an appearance and image that the subject is able to aspire to by portraying this image to others within and throughout their life (a version of one’s self that does not correspond to the chaotic drives of our actual physical selves). Lacan believed that once the subject entered the symbolic order, the subject would then develop narcissistic ideologies about themselves which is maintained by the imaginary order. As it is explained within the Lacan module on the structure of the psyche, the appearance of oneself can be officiated by those around them who may emulate within our lives such as; role models and lovers etc, which means that whomever we (as people) set up as a “mirror” for ourselves, is ultimately, a narcissistic relationship. According to Lacan: “The primary imaginary relation provides the fundamental framework for all possible erotism”. It is a condition to which the object of Eros as such must be submitted. “The object relation must always submit to the narcissistic framework and be inscribed in it” (Freud’s papers, 174). He also thought of the ‘Gaze’ as the tense feeling one develops when they become aware of being observed, such as the child who first viewed themselves in a mirror. Other theories he developed was how the gaze is used to display power or used in a disciplinary situations, as well as describing it as the real, the imaginary and the symbolic working together as one, thus creating the tension of our psychodynamic selves. To develop the understanding of the gaze further it is therefore important to put forward the observations from other academics from different disciplines to gain as true a reflection of its meaning as possible.

The ‘System of power and the gaze’, is the influence the powerful and educated have over the underclasses and the ignorant.

‘The Birth of the clinic’ which was written in 1963 by French philosopher Michel Foucault, first referenced the term “medical gaze” to explain the process of a medical diagnosis. This is an interesting form of the gaze, as it also states a power dynamic that is created between the doctor and the patient, which reflects on the inquisition of medical knowledge within society. Foucault states his theory of the gaze by illustrating a dynamic within “power relations” and disciplinary in his work ‘Discipline and Punish – The birth of the prison’, written in 1975 which analyses the social and theoretical mechanisms stating the changes in the Western penal systems such as prisons and schools, which contain apparatuses of power within

them.

Foucault believes that the gaze is not something that someone has or uses; rather, the gaze is simply a relationship which one enters into. This is also a shared theory by Lisa Cartwright and Marita Sturken, both scholars, authors and critic’s, who co-wrote ‘Practices of Looking: An introduction to visual culture’; according to both, “The gaze is integral to systems of power and ideas about knowledge” (p94). The three main concepts that were introduced by Foucault were panopticism (modifing behavior), power/knowledge and biopower (Government bodies control over their population). Each of these concepts address the self-regulation which is found around the systems of surveillance, which refers to how people chose to behave under the belief and thought that they are permanently being watched; even if they cannot see who or what is doing the watching.

The imperial gaze is the power of governments over not only its own people but also over other countries, notably weaker countries (in the past it was the major European countries over their colonies in Africa, India, Far East, etc. Nowadays, it’s the super power countries over the rest of the world, and to some degree we now have religious powers trying to exert their beliefs over others – although this is has been the case throughout the last few millennia). Post-colonial concept of the imperial gaze was introduced by E. Ann Kaplan a research professor of ‘English and Cultural Analysis’, and past president of the ‘society for cinema and media studies’, this concept focused on how the ‘observed’ found themselves defined within the terms of the of the ‘observers’ own set of values and privileges. The perception of the colonies meant that the imperial gaze belittles its citizens, by stating commands and orders to the masses enforcing them to abide by the rules set upon them. According to Kaplan “The Imperial gaze reflects the assumption that the white western subject is central much as the male gaze assumes the centrality of the male subject” this was quoted in Patricia Waugh’s ‘Literary Theory and Criticism’ in 2006 (p514).

The term “post-colonial gaze” is used in order to explain the relationship of the colonial powers that were extended to the masses of colonised countries, similar to the Imperial gaze mentioned earlier. By placing the colonised countries in the position of the ‘other’ provided the ability to help shape and establish the colonial identity as being a powerful conqueror, and also acting and providing as a constant reminder of this idea. Professor Peter Beardsell Department of Hispanic Studies, University of Hull, stated ‘in Europe and Latin America: Returning the gaze’, “…has the function of establishing the subject/object relationship…it indicates at its point of emanation the location of the object” (p8). This means that the coloniser or the colonised relationship provided a basis for the coloniser to understand themselves along with their identity. This role provides the understanding of the appropriation of the power that is central to the understanding of how the coloniser has influenced the countries that they have chosen to colonise. Which brings about them being deeply connected to the development of the post-colonial theory, utilizing the post-colonial gaze theory by allowing the formerly colonised societies to conquer the social barriers which are often prohibited, meaning that the expression of their true culture, social, economic, and political rights, are no longer allowed within these countries.

The ‘Male gaze’ is a term describing how men look and perceive the female body as a sexual object.

It was made popular by feminist and film theorist Laura Mulvey in 1975 in her essay ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’. Mulvey a Professor of film and media at the University of London introduced the ‘second wave feminist’ which is a concept that focused and studied the “Male gaze”. The concept features a gender power that is located within the film, media and the art world. Even though earlier studies of the gaze could be found within other academics works, Mulvey has been acknowledged for bringing this theory to the forefront of both academia and feminist movements. Mulvey believed that women were being objectified within and by the use of film due to the fact that the cameras were being controlled by ‘heterosexual men’, this meant that Hollywood films were playing at being voyeuristic. Later, this concept became an influential theory within feminist films and media studies as well as

art.
Advertising and media agencies use the ‘Male gaze’ in their clients’ product advertisements, from male grooming products, to tourism; ‘The ravishing blonde in the arm of the great smelling handsome gentleman at the roulette table’, ‘the gorgeous babes playing volleyball on the beach in skimpy bikinis’. There are many more examples of these types of adverts that are primarily made by men for men. ‘Wear this aftershave and you too can have the beautiful lady’, ‘book this holiday and you can see and meet the shapely fun loving girls’. Advertising agencies in general have and are male dominate, this means that the representations that are brought forth are aim towards the white, western, heterosexual male. These therefore provide males with a privileged gaze over women the “master subject”. The predominant male behind the lens are the creators of the stereotypical ideal male fantasy that is the perfect female characteristics, such as; youth, beauty, sexuality, as well as the submissive and sensual female. These images projected onto the mass media are designed to sell products or services via the use of sexuality as a norm, that even young impressionable females believe this ideology as the way a female should look and act to be accepted by the male.

Scopophilia which is someone who gains sexual pleasure from looking at pornography in multiple different formats such as photographs and film, as well as enjoying Voyeurism, this is also connected to the ‘gaze’. The term was introduced by Austrian neurologist, and the father of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (grandfather of artist Lucian Freud). Freud believed that the pleasure that is brought about by ‘looking ‘ is a natural instinct in childhood, ‘child with mother’ which in later years this benign instinct transfers into an interest of nudes in art for example, or alternatively becoming fixated into what Freud referenced it to be ‘…a burning and tormenting curiosity to see the female body’ (pp41-42) which led to Freud’s belief that the inhibition of scopophilia could possibly lead to disturbances of vision; meaning that one person could find themselves having inappropriate thoughts about someone else or others. The theory of scopophilia was further developed by Otto Fenichel the Austrian psychoanalysis in his works ‘The Scoptophilic Instinct and Idententification’ (1953). Fenichel believed that “…a child who is looking for libidinous purpose…wants to look at an object in order to ‘feel along with him’’ (p71). His work and research also led to the exploration into how looking could substitute for the act of those who appear anxious and want to avoid being seen as guilty. The afore mentioned Jacques Lacan who drew from the ideologies and theories of the eminent French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre’s states that the appreciation of the gaze and scopophilia are linked to each other: “the gaze is this object lost and suddenly re-found in the conflagration of shame, by the introduction of the other” ‘Lucan’ (p183). Lacan then went on to state how desire is simply captured and created within the imaginary appearance of the other, this theory has been analysed by other theorist in order to help emphasis and support the argument of how one discovers the sexual differences in childhood, and understanding or knowing one’s trigger to their scopophilic drive.

With the introduction of camera’s in the 1970s people were able to indulge in film and cinema as a form of entertainment. Due to this cultural change within the social aspects, scopophilia then became a main theory amongst cinema psychoanalysts as a way to describe the pleasures and other unconscious processes which occurs within the viewer when watching film – which often left them being considered as being pathological. Other elements have arisen since the mainstream of cinematic viewing which occurred within social culture; these concept elements are known as ‘voyeurism’ and the ‘male gaze’ (which have been previously addressed at the beginning of this dissertation).

Therefore, it can be stated that there are many forms of the gaze that has become the formation of the social structure that we use within our day to day lives. The structure of the gaze has been developed, changed and monopolized in many ways throughout the course of history, to ensure that citizens are kept in line for easy control purposes. These are only some examples that the way the gaze has been used throughout the years. I will next be critically analysing creative writing & art to see how the gaze and a power dynamic was used by each discipline; as a method of informing people of the way society perceives the female self-image and their placement within. I will also look at the voyeur & scopophilia aspect of these types of art forms.