Inupiat Research Paper

Introduction:

The Inupiat people inhabit the Northern Slope Borough. This is the Northwestern most part of Alaska. It contains the Northern most American city Barrow, known as Utqiaġvik in Inupiaq, the Inupiat’s native language. There are four main types of Inupiat, the Bering Strait Inupiat, the Kotzebue Sound Inupiat, the Northern Alaska Coast Inupiat also known as Tareumiat and the Interior North Inupiat also known as Nunamiut however each clan has its own traditions and customs and within each town there can be 1 or more clans. (cite) There are roughly 13,500 Inupiat in Alaska. The Inupiat are a part of a group called Inuit which includes tribes in Greenland and Canada. They prefer the term Inuit or Inupiat to Eskimo so for the sake of this paper the term Inuit will be used when discussing the people as a whole. All Inuit speak a form of the language

Inupiaq. However, different dialects are found between the Countries. There are even three distinct dialects that can be found in Alaska among the Inupiat, differentiations can be found between towns as well. This allows the Inupiat to easily identify where each other come from, say when involved in a trade. There are many native languages spoken in Alaska, Inupiaq being one of the major ones along with Aleut and Tlingit as well as Yupik which is actually a part of the Inupiaq family.
The Inupiat are a diverse culture, from the differences found in the terrains in which they live to the clothes and adornment that they wear.

They eat different foods and have different customs all based on where they live. As mentioned before even their dialects are different depending on which community they live in. Interestingly, inter-marriage also helps to further differentiate Inupiat clans. Explorers and hunters travelled to different parts of Alaska depending on what they were looking for. An example of how non-natives have impacted subculture is by looking at Point Hope which has a large Portuguese lineage due to the Portuguese whalers that use to travel there. This Portuguese lineage is not found as strongly or at all in other Inupiat clans. Another way that the Inupiat differ is how far they would travel away from home during the changing of seasons. Depending on the terrain that they live in some did not have to go as far in the spring and summer for hunting and foraging. This has changed somewhat due to the requirement that children go to school, this will be discussed further later in the

paper.
Similarities among the Inupiat can be seen within their social structure. They for the most part treat children the same, teaching them to be a part of the community from an early age. Dividing labors based on gender but also teaching children to do the other gender’s chores so they could do anything if the need arose. Men and women work side by side without domination over each other, it is truly a partnership based on mutual respect for the other’s abilities.
Even though war did happen among clans there is an example of how these people have developed culturally that really illustrates their social paradigm. All clans had an arrangement that feuds and war would subside from spring to fall which were their most productive seasons. This was the time that they did the most hunting and foraging for the winter months. So even though these people may be fighting with their neighbors, they had a mutual understanding that stocking up for winter was more important. (cite)
Religion among the Inupiat revolves around animals, shapeless spirits and human like creatures being the controlling powers of their world and their connection to it. (cite) Rituals, use of magic and observance of taboos were thought by the Inupiat to be ways of influencing supernatural forces to their desired ends. Their religious beliefs are ingrained into their entire culture. It is about respecting and appreciating their environment and what it provides them, as is very evident within the whaling customs performed. Art, songs, stories and dance are all part of their culture and are very much influenced by their ideas of the spirit world. Everyone had access to supernatural powers but there were specialized practitioners that were seen as very powerful. These shaman or otherwise known by the Inupiat as an angatgag were important leaders to them. They were thought to be the most capable healers and controllers of the forces of nature. One thing that they had that laymen did not have were spirit animals that would assist them with tasks which made them much more powerful in the eyes of other Inupiat. However, as American whalers and eventually Christian missionaries began to show up these religious leaders lost some of their power. (cite) Christianity became a part of their lives as churches were built and attendance was required. Non-native whalers would perform tasks that were taboo to the Inupiat yet bad things did not happen. These taboos would then loose some of their power and as shaman were enforces of these taboos their power became less meaningful as a result. They were still feared and revered but became less important to the community.(cite)
It is likely that the origins of the Inupiat started roughly 6,000 years ago when people travelled across the Berin Land Bridge from the East to Alaska. Point Hope, likely the oldest settlement of Inuit at about 2000 years old shows signs of 2 ancient cultures. The Denbigh or “small tool culture” began nearly 5000 years ago around the Bering Sea, eventually spreading out to the west towards Alaska and Canada. (cite) The Denbigh branched off to also become the Dorset culture. Signs of both of these cultural eras can be found at archeological sites in Point Hope, Alaska. (cite)
Inupiat history went unrecorded for thousands of years. The first record was in 984 when the Greenland Inuit were met. (cite) The Alaskan Inuit were recorded in 1741 when the first Russian explores found Alaska. However, this was Southern Alaska which meant that the Inupiat were not greatly affected by the Russian explorers. The Inupiat were aware of the non-natives due to trading with other natives who had been exposed to them. However, the Russians mostly stayed south due to their focus on fur hunting as a way to trade with China so it was not until Whaling became popular that the Inupiat were truly affected by non-natives. (cite)
Background:
In 1867 the U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia. The first American settlement was in Sitka which is in Southern Alaska. People flocked there by ship from San Francisco in the years prior to and proceeding the 1867 purchase.(cite) This was a new frontier that promised riches for new comers. It was when these Americans came to Alaska that the Inupiat were truly impacted. Hunting of the Bowhead Whale which was a major resource and custom of the Inupiat greatly impacted the economics of their culture. The Inupiat found a need to find wage earning jobs. They were sometimes forced to put away their traditions as year round hunters to be tour guides. The Bowhead whale was a major source of food among other uses for the Inupiat. Whereas the American hunters only wanted them for their Baleen which was used for production of multiple things including buttons. The over hunting of these whales caused a great shift in there means of making a living. Even more so, when whaling died out in the early 1900’s because Baleen was no longer needed, many jobs were lost that these people had come to depend on. Luckily, the Inupiat still had their land and their whales even if it was more difficult due to over-commercialization.
After the American colonization of Alaska there was great fluctuation and lose of people among all native groups. Many tribes completely disappeared due to death and lose of resources. Many individuals left their homes to seek out kin in other areas that had not been as greatly impacted by these non-natives. Kinship ties were extremely important to the Inupiat. Most marriages happened within tribes however, some married outside their territories as a way to create ties to more resources. Two other very important ways that people created ties across territories were trading partners and co-marriage. Trading is very important among Native Alaskans due to the environment they live in and there are lots of trade routes and trade fairs that allow for mass cooperation among natives, so having trade partners was a key alliance. Co-marriage is an arrangement made by two couples in different communities united by shared access to sex. (cite) These ties allowed for protection, access to food and goods as well as helped neutralize situations in times of war. There was no real political structure within the tribes so a person relied on his Kin and other ties to be of help in times of need or when disagreements happened. Leaders when needed, for say hunting excursions were chosen based on knowledge and ability. This of course allowed for blood feuds among families and if you were not in a place where you had kin your life was likely in danger. (cite)
Within a community Kinship ties were important but there is still mutual respect among families. There is a true sense of community that can be found among these people. In a land that can be very unforgiving people must rely on each other. If a family has an abundance of food and another family doesn’t they will give them assistance when it is requested. This is because they know that next year they may not be as lucky and may need to reach out to others for help. Their request is much more likely to be granted when they have been generous in the past. Even more so Whaling captains have a tie to their whole community as will be discussed later in this paper.
Some key dates for the Inupiat people after 1867 were 1934 and 1971. In 1934 the Indian Reorganization Act went into effect. This gave the Inupiat the right to use their power to benefit their tribal members, conserve tribal lands and resources, carry out justice and social services based on tribal customs, and increase the quality and variety of services offered to current and future clansman. (cite) The second date 1971 is when the Alaska Native Claims Act went into effect. It created 12 regional for profit corporations that had rights to the surface and minerals of 44 million acres of land. (cite) This act also paid out $962.5 million as compensation for 335 million acres that was no longer claimed. This money was paid out to all Alaskans with at least a quarter of native blood. (cite)
The Northern Slope Borough which is where the Inupiat live was established in 1972 and took over the administration of education in 1975, which will be discussed in more detail later. Now villages are sub-divided within the Borough with elected mayors and city councils which is much different from the previously non-existent political structure of the Inupiat. (cite) Previously communities had community hunts and their mutual understanding that help would be provided to those who needed it was all that they required until Americans came and started to destroy their culture. By the 1960’s a lot of cultural changes could be seen, one example is the change in age customs. (cite) Boys and girls would change their style of clothing when they reached adulthood. Some Inupiat men when they were ready to marry would have the sides of their mouths slit and decorative labrets would be inserted into the wounds. This told women that they were ready to be husbands. (cite) Women after having their first menstruation and then growing breasts would have small parallel lines tattooed from their bottom lip to the tip of their chin. (cite) By the 1960’s there was very little evidence that this tradition even existed as the only women that could be found with these markings were over the age of 60. (cite) Another change that can be illustrated by look at the Inupiat women is their knowledge of butchering. A very important custom previously, all girls learned this skill young in preparation for finding a good husband. Then it became more of a chore learned after marriage if at all as men were now working other jobs and did not have as much time to hunt and only some were whale hunters. The Inupiat still hunt to this day, whaling is still an important tradition and subsistence to their culture and lives but it has become increasingly more difficult due to weather conditions and migration patterns of the Bowhead whale.
Expressions:
Art is an important piece of the Inupiat culture. When Americans began to infiltrate Alaska, Inupiat art also became a means of earning a wage as well as introducing their culture to outsiders. Art being a means of expression, a lot of their work is of animals which is a clear connection to their religious beliefs, animal spirits being of great importance. They also have masks and would adorn bags and bowls with symbols of great importance to them. In the poster that goes along with this paper an image of a ceremonial bowl can be seen. This bowl has alternating animals along the edge. The animals are all important food sources to the Inupiat people. There are small blue beads holding them in place that represent where the animal’s life force resides and where hunters aim their spears. (cite) This bowl is a good example of how art and religion mingle within their culture. Their way of life is represented on this bowl that was likely used in important ceremonies.
Not only do the Inupiat express themselves with art but also song and dance. Songs are a very important part of Inupiat culture and religion. An important part of the whaling tradition is based in song. They have songs to help slow whales, charm them, songs to make their harpoons true when thrown and songs when they spot whales. Songs were used by shaman to heal people as well as help hunters and songs are sung when they mourn the dead. The Inupiat have many forms of dance, some that only men can do and others that only women can do. There are specific dances with particular movements and others that are more free form. Dance is used in celebration and religious customs.
The Inupiat have gathering places called the gargi. This was a general meeting place for social events but men spent most of their time there when they were not working or hunting. (cite) This was generally where men met to decide their next community hunts and where they spent recreational time. Then it would also be opened to families for community events, storytelling and dances. It was a ceremonial house and family social center. Storytelling, another important part of their culture which is also an art form is truly remarkable when considering their contemporary challenges, stories are a means of coping with an uncertain future and tying them to their past.
Contemporary Challenges:
Climate Degradation is by far the most heavily impacting challenge that the Inupiat face. They are not all impacted by it in the same way because of the diversity of the terrains they live in but it is hurting all of them in some way. Two articles discussed in this portion of the paper are about the clans in the more southern part of the Borough however they still illustrate what is happening all over Alaska and therefore impacts all Inupiat.
Kivalina which is home to some 400 people, 97% of which are Native Inupiat will be uninhabitable in the next decade or so. (cite) In the article Fighting for home in the melting artic the author interviewed a resident and whaling captain from this town named Andrew. In this article global change is discussed as one of two reasons this town needs help that is not being provided at this time. “Kivalina has lost nearly thirty acres from erosion, sending about half of the livable land into the sea.” (cite) This is caused by warming temperatures and glaciers melting. Without ice and glaciers whaling, hunting of other water creatures and fishing become harder and more treacherous. Hunting on land becomes more difficult because of this warmer weather as well, without snow the terrain becomes more challenging to cross. It was clear however when reading this article that these people will preserver and find a way to survive. They find ways to adapt to changing conditions and one of these ways is through storytelling.
The next article to be discussed is about the Inupiat of Point Hope, known as Tikigaq in Inupiaq. In 1977 this clan of Inupiat had to move their town from their ancestral homes due to great flooding. Some still live in the remnants of what is known as “Old Town” and it is used for storing Whale but most of the residents had to move onto the tundra, also called “New Town” about two miles away. Some people were just not willing to leave their homes so they found a way to stay. The Inupiat must also store their whale meat in the “Old Town” because on the tundra they do not have a permafrost layer that can be made into an ice cellar. The Inupiat who identify themselves as the “People of the Whales” are slowly even losing this tradition of storing the whales in what they call sigluaq. (cite) Not only do they have the meat stored somewhere else now instead of under their homes but the sigluaq are also melting due to the warmer temperatures. Sigluaq are important as Inupiat believe that the whales will only allow themselves to be caught if they have a clean place to go. (cite) This is a tradition that may one day disappear due to global change, they may one day have to have huge electric freezers if they want to continue whaling.
Whaling is a key to the Inupiat’s identities and though some of the materials used today are different then in the past there are still integral traditions that remained practiced to this day. Whaling traditions also set clans apart though. From the way they hunt for them to the foods they eat after they catch one there are different variations to almost all aspects of whaling. Again this seems to be somewhat based on what part of Alaska they live in because of the terrain differences. But, one thing that transcends all clans is the Whale Captains duties. He is a true leader among the clan as he and his wife have to organize and provide most of the materials used and the food eaten during and after the hunt. The Whale Captain is also required to hold a great feast after a successful catch and to provide meat to the whole community. This meat will help the families of his clan survive through the winter. The Whale Captain is also supposed to house the whale meat that is not given away when it is first caught but may give some of this supply later on.
The Inupiat of Point Hope are living in a land of adversity, having lost their ancestral home they are dealing with these great changes through their storytelling. “Arctic climate change impacts human life ways on a cultural level by threatening their homeland, their sense of place, and their kinship with the environment”. (cite) Storytelling helps them cope with these changes as their stories are ever evolving. In the article “Our home is drowning”: Inupiat storytelling and climate change in Point Hope it is discussed that stories have stopped being told and spirits that would been “seen” in the past have disappeared. Spirits or creatures of many kinds are spotted by the Inupiat, further illustrating how religion is engrained in their culture. However, with the changes they are facing some creatures are no longer needed symbols. Small people as the article describes are being seen more and more as a symbol of change. People see spirits in “Old Town” now where as they use to be seen in the tundra that has been turned into “New Town”. (cite) Stories are told of these sightings as a way to tie themselves to both their old homes as well as to their new home.
First, the storytelling tradition allows people to cultivate a strong sense of place, as “all stories are inseparable from places”. Second, stories inspire a dynamic part of people’s identities and make places special. People’s relationships with the land and the land’s relationships with people can be viewed as “healthy” if stories bring places alive in people’s memory. Third, storytelling is a way for humans to communicate with spirits. (cite)
The Inupiat are a strong, capable people who learn to adapt to their surroundings. In doing so however they may have allowed non-natives to forever change their path in life. Prior to American colonization children learned at home or working for their families. Once schools were established children were required to go and could no longer learn as completely about their culture and traditions as they had in the past. English began to be taught, Christianity was introduced and soon children were no longer speaking their native tongue. Of the 13,500 Inupiat around today only about 3,000 of them speak Inupiaq and most of them are older than 40 years old. The school board in the Northern Slope Borough are trying to combat this loss of language but it is still spoken considerably less than in the past.
Conclusion: