Intelligence Collection Methods

Intelligence is one of the first lines of defense tool used by the United States to protect the Country against both foreign and domestic threats (Johnson, 2010). It proved to be veritable tool during the World War II and during the cold war against the USSR. There are many ways and methods of intelligence collections employed by the intelligence community, such as “spies, eavesdropping, technical sources, and openly available materials” etc. (Clark, 2013). Method used also depends on many factors such as available resources, time, agency involved, and intelligence collection source. Each intelligence agencies use different collection and analytical method that suit their collection function, structure and process. For example, DNI/OSC

relies on open source (OSINT), the CIA uses human intelligence (HUMINT) tactic, DIA uses measurements and signatures intelligence (MASINT), NSA employs signals intelligence (SIGINT), and NGA utilizes imagery intelligence (IMINT) techniques for their intelligence collections (Clark, 2013).
Moreover, majority of these agencies within the intelligence community uses a combination of methods to gather intelligence information.

For instance, Homeland security intelligence unit uses a broad array of sources on a continual basis to collect, analyzes, and evaluates terrorism-related information. Also, the U.S. Coast Guard intelligence information use to combat weapon of mass effect proliferation, drug smugglers, gunrunners, and illegal immigration comes from different sources. This intelligence information comes from broad arrays of sources, both domestic and foreign. In some cases, these INTs communities compete among each other to provide needed intelligence information to policy makers to justify their budgetary allocations (Lowenthal, 2014). However, these competitions for supremacy often results in lack of sharing of valuable intelligence information. There was this allegation that someone within the intelligence community had advance information about the "Underwear Bomber” in 2009 but failed to share the information among other intelligence community and law enforcement agents. There was also, an accusation that Boston marathon day bombing would have been prevented had it been that the prior information about the brothers was disseminated among the intelligence community

alike.
Furthermore, lots of national agencies (CIA, DIA, DHS, and the State Department) and military service units are charged with producing all source analysis of intelligence information. These intelligence collections can be divided into five main categories referred to as “intelligence collection disciplines” or the “INTs”. These include Human Intelligence (HUMINT), Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), Imagery Intelligence (IMINT), Measurement and Signatures Intelligence (MASINT), Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT), (The Federal Bureau of Investigation, n. d). These intelligence collection methods will be discussed below.
Human Intelligence (HUMINT): Human intelligence has proved to be a useful tool for intelligence collection, which has helped to shape U.S foreign policy decisions over the years (Johnson, 2010).

It involves collection of information from human sources. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) used this method of intelligence collection to gather intelligence information within the United States, while the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employ this tactic to gather intelligence information on threats outside the United States and other information about world affairs (The Federal Bureau of Investigation, n. d). The National Clandestine Service (NCS) is the branch of the CIA responsible for the collection of HUMINT. They obtain their intelligence information through the clandestine acquisition of photography, documents, and other material; overt collection by officers overseas; debriefing of foreign nationals and U.S. citizens who travel abroad; and official contacts with foreign governments. The NCS task is to aid in the strengthening of the national security and foreign policy objectives through the clandestine collection of HUMINT (Central Intelligence Agency, n. d). The FBI also, uses SIGINT, MASINT, and OSINT to collect intelligence

information.
Signals Intelligence (SIGINT): This method of intelligence collection deals with “the collection and exploitation of signals transmitted from communication systems, such as radars, broadcast communications systems , weapon systems and other electronic systems” through the use of communication interception devices designed to detect transmissions (Central Intelligence Agency, n. d). Signals intelligence collection falls under the responsibility of the National Security Agency (NSA). Signals intelligence comprises of numerous categories such as Communications Intelligence (COMINT), Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence (FISINT), Electronic intelligence (ELINT), telemetry from missile tests (TELINT), and radar transmitters (RADINT), (Pike, 1997). These electronic transmissions can be intercepted by ships, planes, ground sites, or satellites (The Federal Bureau of Investigation, n. d).
Imagery Intelligence (IMINT): Imagery intelligence includes literal photographic, digital, or radar pictures of targets (Berkowitz, 2008). This method of intelligence gathering have some advantages over other collection types in that it produces graphics and pictures that convey concrete and “self-reveal” information to policy makers, war fighters, intelligence professionals and first responders. Imagery intelligence does not require detail interpretation to policy makers (Lowenthal, 2014). For instance, U.S intelligence community were able to produce satellite images of the North Korea nuclear sites which show levels of activity on the underground test site at Punggye-ri. These types of image prove useful intelligence to policy makers on the imminence of nuclear test by the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency has a responsibility for the collection and processing the imagery which they deliver to decision makers, war fighters, and first responders’ need, when they need it; while the National Reconnaissance Office designs, builds, and operates imagery satellites (The Federal Bureau of Investigation, n. d).
Measurement and Signatures Intelligence (MASINT): MASINT deals with weapons capabilities and industrial activities Lowenthal, 2014). Electronic intelligence (ELINT) and Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence (FISINT), are both major contributors to MASINT. ELINT involves “intercepts of non-communication signals sent over electromagnetic waves while FISINT deals with the signals sent by foreign entities when testing and deploying aerospace, surface, and sub-surface systems” (Knight, n. d). The Defense Intelligence Agency’s Central MASINT Office (CMO), is the principal user of MASINT data.
Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT): Open-Source Intelligence involves the collection, processing, and exploitation/analysis of multiple intelligence information from open-source such as the media, professional and academic records, and public data. This method of intelligence collection has the advantage of easy accessibility of intelligence information. For instance, one can access bunch of information from browsing the World Wide Web or social media. CIA is responsible for collecting, producing, and promoting open source intelligence through its management of the DNI Open Source Center (OSC), (Central Intelligence Agency, 2010).
Intelligence information runs into various circles before reaching the policy makers for final consumption. The six step cycle of developing unrefined data into polished intelligence before delivering it to the policy makers is known as intelligence cycle. Those six step cycle includes Requirements, Planning and Direction, Collection, Processing and Exploitation, Analysis and Production, Dissemination. The cycle starts with the identification of needs for information about what must be known to safeguard the nation. The next step involves planning, coordination, and management of the process. This follows by the actual intelligence collection, processing and exploitation. Information collected will then send to the analytical unit for analysis and synthesis before disseminating it to the policy makers. This entire process requires active collaboration from all intelligence disciplines as mandated by the Executive Order 12333.
Executive Order 12333 guides the U.S. intelligence-collection activities in that it mandates the Director of National Intelligence, among other things, “to serve as the head of the Intelligence Community; lead a unified, coordinated, and effective intelligence effort by taking into account the views of the heads of departments containing an element of the Intelligence Community and of the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency”. The Intelligence Community under the leadership of the Director of National Intelligence “shall also, ensure, through appropriate policies and procedures, the deconfliction, coordination, and integration of all intelligence activities conducted by an Intelligence Community element or funded by the National Intelligence Program” (Executive Order 12333, 1981).
To summarize, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 and Executive Order 12333 (as amended) restructured the U.S intelligence community to enhance better communication and information sharing among them. Each of these 16 notable Members of the U.S. Intelligence Community work in concerted effort under unified command in other to collect intelligence information needed to secure the United States against domestic and foreign aggressions. The intelligence community uses five main methods to collect and analyze intelligence information. These methods include Human Intelligence, Signals Intelligence, Imagery Intelligence, Measurement and Signatures Intelligence, Open-Source Intelligence. The information collected goes into six cycles such as requirements, planning and direction, collection, processing and exploitation, analysis and production, dissemination, before the final consumption by the policy makers.