Serology is defined as the study of serum and other bodily fluids in reference to the diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum. Serology is used in forensic science as a way of segregating fluids excreted by suspects in criminal acts. Criminal acts with fluid secretion attached to them can range from physical or sexual assault right through the act of murder. Forensic serology deals not only with a variety of body fluids but also, more frequently, with samples that are in stain form and often some stains are degraded and deteriorated, which makes it difficult to successfully analyze them. Over the past 30 years DNA analysis has become more reliable which has led to the release of wrongly accused individuals and reanalysis on a number …show more content…
of cases. The biological information provided by serology is significantly improved by the power of DNA analysis in individualization. This does not mean that original work that serology provided was wrong or performed in a fraudulent way, but just that employing DNA can provide more information. Knowledge of serology or at least an availability of information on the subject is important to throughout forensic study. The accuracy of serology in criminal investigations could work for or against the suspect in the case. Serology can be the reason for someone who was wrongfully accused to be released from prison but in turn puts someone else behind bars. In some cases DNA evidence found by serologists are the only hope for innocent people but the worst enemy for a person who thought they left the crime scene untraceable. Serology, in addition to examining and identifying blood, is used to identify, categorize and analyze semen, saliva, sweat and fecal matter.
These substances that I just listed are considered body fluids. Body fluids are liquids that originate from inside the bodies of living humans. They are categorized into two different sections excreted and secreted. Secreted body fluids are discharged in the process of secretion. Secretion takes place in a cell or gland and is the process of separating and releasing a substance that fills some function within the organism. Excreted body fluids are separated and eliminated from the body. Both secretion and excretion involves the movement of materials. The difference between both processes is that secretion moves body fluids from one point to another in the body, while excretion removes body fluids from the body. Therefore fluids that are excreted are mostly body waste while secreted fluids are important and are used by our bodies. Excreted body fluids includes sweat, tears, feces and urine, while secreted body fluids includes enzymes, hormones or saliva. Various secreted and excreted body fluids are found on crime scenes. An investigator will usually discover secreted body fluids contained somewhere within the human body and excreted body fluids on or about the body of the victim of the crime. Blood, semen, saliva, sweat and fecal matter as mentioned previously are the most common body fluids found in criminal situations. If body fluids …show more content…
are present at a crime scene it is important they are immediately collected and preserved by the crime scene investigators. Depending on the weather conditions some body fluids could lose their evidentiary value, for example, if it is raining excreted body fluids are likely to get lost. Body fluids found on crime scenes are considered biological evidence. Biological evidence refers to a type of physical evidence that typically contains DNA. This is a molecule that contains our unique genetic code. DNA is the most reliable forensic tool when it comes to analyzing a crime scene. When a serologists receives a piece of evidence to analyze they search for DNA to link the evidence to a suspect. According to The Reliability of DNA testing, an article written by Jessica Tam, “The FBI estimates that the odds of a coincidental match are 1 in 108 trillion. Others estimate 1 in 113 billion.” This means that it is not likely that two people will have the same DNA. This is why the judicial system have accepted the accuracy and value of DNA testing. Besides blood, the most obvious source of DNA at a crime scene, especially one that involves a sexual related assault, is semen.
Collecting and analyzing semen is the easiest way to locate a suspect in a sexual abuse case. Semen, also known as seminal fluid which is produced by post-pubescent males and ejaculated following sexual simulation. It is a semifluid mixture of cells, ions, salts, amino acids, sugars and other organic and inorganic materials. It is supplied by the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and Cowper’s glands as a heterogeneous gelatinous mass. A human male can ejaculate from 2 to 6 milliliters that sometimes contain 100 to 150 million sperm cells per milliliter. Semen can remain inside the body of the victim for up to five days. Serologists can test for semen using a confirmatory test called the christmas tree stain. This is the most reliable way to confirm the presence of semen. A serologist uses two reagents in a row to create a unique stain. This turns the neck and tail of the sperm to green and blue. A test called the Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) can also be used. This test is also used to detect prostate cancer in men. Semen contains a high level of PSA which is useful for identification. If semen is located on a sample a blue color will appear on the PSA test. Over the years semen has been used to solve many criminal cases. In 1975 when Catherine Ainsworth did not show up for work her concerned friends discovered her body in her apartment.
Investigators found sperm on the carpet beneath her body and an autopsy revealed that there was semen inside the victim’s body that was believed to be inseminated within four days before she died. The police initially suspected that Ainsworth’s neighbor William Rouse was responsible for the crime. When interviewed Rouse’s story was not consistent and because of lack of evidence the case went cold. Thirty seven years later in 2010 the case was resubmitted to a lab in Florida and investigators located Rouse’s family. They provided the investigators with hats that were worn by Rouse prior to his death in 2006. Rouse’s DNA from the hat matched the DNA from the sperm on the carpet at the crime scene. That is an example of one of many cases where semen can solve a criminal case. Saliva is another body fluid that contains DNA and can be used to find a suspect. Saliva is a watery substance found in the mouth of humans and animals secreted by the salivary glands. It is a slightly alkaline secretion comprised of about 99 percent water, the other 1 percent contains mucus, proteins, salts, and enzymes. Humans produce 1 to 1.5 liters of saliva every day. The primary purpose of saliva is to help in the beginning stages of digestion by lubricating food and making it easier to swallow. Investigators have found DNA based on saliva found on simple items such as cigarette butts and back of envelopes. There is no specific test for saliva. The goal of serologists is to detect alpha-amylase which is an enzyme found in both plants and animals. They catalyze amylose, the components of starch and amylopectin into smaller less complex sugars. Alpha-amylase can be found in many body fluids but the levels are 50 times higher in saliva and is stable. To test for a suspects DNA in saliva serologists use a test called Starch-Iodine Test. In this test starch appears blue in the presence of iodine. When amylase acts on starch and breaks it down the color changes. This test is known to have its drawbacks for example, when protein is in the presence of starch and iodine it could produce a false negative and it is also hard to use as a locator test for stains on objects. There is also a radical diffusion test which is another method of this test. Iodine is poured over an agar gel containing starch. When the starch diffuses, it breaks down and leaves a circular void area that is proportional to the amount of amylase present. Another way to test for saliva is to use a test called the Phadebas Reagent. This is when starch is separated from a dye by amylase and the dye molecules dissolve. The solvent is placed on filter paper and is placed on the item to find stains with amylase. This produces a colored product and it measured by a spectrophotometer. The level of the coloration is based on the amount of amylase in the sample. Serologists used saliva from the back of a letter to link terrorist Nidal Ayyad as a suspect in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Many other cases similar to the one I just described were solved based on body fluid being present where it is least expected. Some cases are solved solely by analyzing body fluids, for example, saliva from cigarette butts helped convict Randal Comeaux in 1997. He was a member of the sheriff’s department in Lafayette, Louisiana and was also a serial rapist for thirteen years. Comeaux started attacking people in the 1980s but never got caught because he never left any physical evidence and always wore a mask. Investigator had no leads on the rape cases until an anonymous caller suggested that Comeaux should be investigated. The DNA from Comeaux’s cigarette bud was matched with semen samples from six rape cases. He was sentenced to six consecutive life sentences without the possibility of parole. In Comeaux’s case both saliva and semen were used to convict him. Aside from blood, semen and saliva at a crime scene, investigators say cellular material in sweat could leave significant clues. Sweat is a moisture produced by the sweat glands and emitted through the pores of the skin. It is a watery fluid that contains lipids and proteins. It is a cooling mechanism that the body uses to maintain the conditions on the inside of your body. Sweat does not actually contain DNA or cells The DNA sample that is found in sweat is from the shedding of skin cells. The skin cells along with the sweat remain on clothing and other items. Investigators can use sweat to help identify a suspect by using a DNA analysis known as polymerase chain reaction, which allows scientists to make copies of DNA samples. Small traces of body fluids could potentially solve a cold case. A serologist only needs a tiny trace of the suspect’s DNA to link them to the crime scene. Although not a common instance, fecal matter is a body fluid that could possibly solve a case. Fecal matter is a solid excretory product evacuated from the bowels. In an abstract written by Roy Reena, he explains that, “in cases where fecal matter is the only available evidence, successful DNA profiles may be obtained.” This may not happen often but if fecal samples or clothing smeared with fecal matter is the only evidence left at a crime scene investigators will be able to extract DNA. Serologists usually detect fecal stain based on the green-brown color and the smell.
Forensic science is a key aspect of Criminal Justice that helps rid the streets of lunatics and murderers. One of the most important fields of forensic science is blood spatter analysis. Under the Crime Scene Investigation, analysts gather the information that could eventually lead to a victim’s killer. Basic and complex information can be found when analyzing blood. We can learn what kind of weapon was used, the time of death of a victim and other important facts that can help a case. The pattern that the blood gives off give forensic scientists the tools that they need to help solve cases.
. DNA can be left or collected from the hair, saliva, blood, mucus, semen, urine, fecal matter, and even the bones. DNA analysis has been the most recent technique employed by the forensic science community to identify a suspect or victim since the use of fingerprinting. Moreover, since the introduction of this new technique, there has been a large number of individuals released or convicted of crimes based on DNA left at the crime scene. DNA is the abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid.
The most important type of evidence is DNA. When DNA testing takes place, the samples are collected from the suspect and the crime scene. These evidences include hair, fingerprint, human secretions, blood, semen and other bodily fluids, are collected and sent to the lab for further investigation.
As stated before, in the Maher case spermatozoa were found in underwear of the rape victim in Lowell, and also spermatozoa were located in the rape kit on the vaginal swab slide that was developed at the time of the crime. In both the spermatozoa were found, collected, and DNA testing was completed on the sample to determine if Dennis Maher committed the crime.
Forensic toxicology is one of the oldest disciplines in forensic science history and dates back hundreds of years. However, the actual understanding and examination of forensic toxicology only dates back for about 200 years. Due to the development of technology, this discipline has been able to progress and flourish.
The criminal justice system has changed a lot since the good old days of the Wild West when pretty much anything was legal. Criminals were dealt with in any fashion the law enforcement saw fit. The science of catching criminals has evolved since these days. We are better at catching criminals than ever and we owe this advancement to forensic science. The development of forensic science has given us the important techniques of fingerprinting and DNA analysis. We can use these techniques to catch criminals, prove people's innocence, and keep track of inmates after they have been paroled. There are many different ways of solving crimes using forensic evidence. One of these ways is using blood spatter analysis; this is where the distribution and pattern of bloodstains is studied to find the nature of the event that caused the blood spatter. Many things go into the determination of the cause including: the effects of various types of physical forces on blood, the interaction between blood and the surfaces on which it falls, the location of the person shedding the blood, the location and actions of the assailant, and the movement of them both during the incident. Another common type of forensic evidence is trace evidence. This is commonly recovered from any number of items at a crime scene. These items can include carpet fibers, clothing fibers, or hair found in or around the crime scene. Hairs recovered from crime scenes can be used as an important source of DNA. Examination of material recovered from a victim's or suspect's clothing can allow association to be made between the victim and other people, places, or things involved in the investigation. DNA analysis is the most important part of forensic science. DNA evidence can come in many forms at the crime scene. Some of these forms include hair; bodily fluids recovered at the crime scene or on the victim's body, skin under the victim's fingernails, blood, and many others. This DNA can be the basis of someone's guilt or innocence; it has decided many cases in the twentieth century. As the times continue to change and the criminals get smarter we will always need to find new ways to catch them. Forensic science is the most advanced method yet, but is only the beginning. As the field of science grows so will the abilities of the
Overall, though, I believe that Stein is the closest scholar here-mentioned to have accounted for the explanation behind these controversies. The main mistake made by many modern scholars lies in the planning and the research – too much effort is spent on seeking to explain this opposition between the Proculians and the Sabinians in terms of two internally coherent law schools which differ entirely and have held controversies stemming from a specific occurrence. I have personally, as a student of the Roman law, found it difficult in reading the sources and differing theories from scholars to do just this – because, as Scarano Ussani stated, nowhere, in the mass of research that has been done, have any definitive results been reached. As afore-mentioned, I ruled out the political explanation for the purpose of answering this question, and the social explanation does not add a great deal to the debate for me. The theories supporting the social standpoint as addressed in this essay are among the worst for choosing to ignore many of the hard facts in order to make their theory fit better. This leaves only the philosophical and methodological explanations. The philosophical explanation is a reasonably sound one, although as explored above, I do believe that its significance has been largely exaggerated. There is no doubt over the fact that philosophy has played an influential role - even if you only look at Gaius’ ius gentium which contains a certain level of Stoic influence, but as mentioned above there are major differences which have been overlooked slightly in those arguments. The methodological explanation is another seemingly logical one, and the most reliable of all theorems explored in this essay, in my opinion, as it i...
Once a crime has been committed the most important item to recover is any type of evidence left at the scene. If the suspect left any Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at the crime scene, he could then be linked to the crime and eventually charged. A suspect’s DNA can be recovered if the suspect leaves a sample of his or her DNA at the crime scene. However, this method was not always used to track down a suspect. Not too long ago, detectives used to use bite marks, blood stain detection, blood grouping as the primary tool to identify a suspect. DNA can be left or collected from the hair, saliva, blood, mucus, semen, urine, fecal matter, and even the bones. DNA analysis has been the most recent technique employed by the forensic science community to identify a suspect or victim since the use of fingerprinting. Moreover, since the introduction of this new technique it has been a la...
Strands of human hair situated at the crime scene gives exceptionally solid sign that an individual was at that area, yet it can likewise be useless if the fibres were found outside and, subsequently subject to the elements such as wind, and if the full length of the strand is not present (Dasgupta, 2007). Hair without anyone else 's input is essential, but rather the most imperative DNA evidence connected with hair fibres originates from the cellular material at the root of the hair strand. In a way, the microscopic particles of follicle give the most solid proof. The protein called keratin is the key substance that goes with the follicle, and that gives the best distinguishing proof. On the off chance that the hair is taken off by the root, for example that could happen when an individual is guarding him or herself against an attacker, then the hair fibres are essential (Innes, 2000). Hair that does exclude follicular material is a great deal less dependable. Hair fibres that do exclude keratin are helpful in distinguishing a category of individual into which a suspect may fit, however they are not complete evidence that the hair originated from the suspect (Innes, 2000). Therefore, personally, hair fibres are less important than fingerprints and DNA evidence acquired from saliva or blood. Fingerprints are not DNA evidence, but still they are extremely dependable types of evidence. DNA obtained from bodily fluids, in any case, is the most profitable type of evidence
Throughout the years of 1977 to 2002 it is said that he testified on behalf of his DNA findings for over 100 cases. From then, the case of Fred Zain has become one of the most well-known cases of forensic tampering. Salecl, (2011) states that Fred Zain worked as a state trooper in West Virginia before working in the state police crime lab as a serologist. As stated in Gianelli, (2012) a serologist is a person who studies serum and other body fluids. Although Fred Zain was not qualified to work as a serologist he became a vital asset in cases for the prosecution.
Forensic toxicologists employ a large number of analytical techniques to determine the drugs or poisons relevant to an investigation; the capacity of a laboratory to conduct routine toxicological analysis varies depending upon equipment, technical capability and analyst experience. When needed, there are specialty toxicology labs that can test for almost any potential toxin or metabolite in almost every kind of post-mortem sample. A laboratory should be accredited to perform the analytical work and must be subject to regular inspections. This will ensure that laboratories can reproduce accurate and reliable results for investigations. All laboratory tests conform to standard operating procedures, results are confirmed to meet standards, and reported results are peer reviewed by a second toxicologist before being released. Even so, we still use methods that Gettler used in his
Forensic science has now been recognized as an important part of the law enforcement team to help solve crimes and cold cases. The advances in technology are being used each day and we must continue to strive to develop better advances in this field. The recent discovery of using DNA in criminal cases has helped not only positively identify the suspect, but it has helped exonerate hundreds of innocent individuals. “With new advances in police technology and computer science, crime scene investigation and forensic science will only become more precise as we head into the future.” (Roufa, 2017) Forensic science and evidence helps law enforcement officials solve crimes through the collection, preservation and analysis of evidence. By having a mobile crime laboratory, the scene gets processed quicker and more efficiently. Forensic science will only grow in the future to be a benefit for the criminal justice
According to the American academy of forensic science, the forensic sciences form a vital part if the entire justice and regulatory system. Forensic science is an enticing career having to do with science and criminal justice, a large variety of schooling is needed to start this job Despite the fact that it can be a dangerous environment it can be an exciting profession to pursue. There are many different fields in forensic science that you can study or major in but they all have the same objectives.
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are the molecules that carry the genetic information of a living being. At a disadvantage, forensic scientist’s only options were to focus on blood factors such as A, B, and O as their only means of linking a suspect to the crime. Plasma is the fluid portion of blood and blood refers to the complex mixture of proteins, cells, enzymes, and inorganic materials. DNA testing is a method used to study collective variations. Each method is unique and has different and has their own limitations and variations and may have different technical
Crime today seems as if it keeps getting worse and worse, but without forensic science would we have been able to figure out some of the main details in some cases? Forensic science is any science used to help solve a case/mystery, which is very vital when it comes to criminal investigation research. While researching my project I discovered all the many tasks and difficulties that come with forensics.