Dorothy Whitelock's Use Of Monsters In Beowulf

Beowulf is a story of a heathen hero set in a pre-Christian era, yet the poem itself is crafted in language with which a Christian audience would be familiar. Since Dorothy Whitelock’s The Audience of Beowulf was published in 1951, the readers and scholars of Beowulf have generally agreed with her hypothesis, which is that the poet was a Christian composing for a Christian audience (Irving 177). As Whitelock asserts, “The Christian element is not merely superimposed; it permeates the poem” (Whitelock 4). However, the pagan themes of this tale of ancient Germanic heroes are likewise impossible to ignore. Although scholars throughout the ages have tried to prove that Beowulf is either a pagan text or a Christian one, this essay will discuss

the view of Beowulf as a text that blurs the boundaries between paganism and Christianity. The poem, written by a Christian about a time before the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity (Irving 177), is a fusion of Christian and pagan ideals.
In addition to the ancient Germanic setting, there are multiple pagan themes featured in Beowulf. As it is set in a time before Christianity, the poet could not depict his characters as Christian, despite his and the audience’s own religious beliefs. Therefore, the people of Beowulf are depicted as pagan people who participate in some heathen rituals, yet believe in one omnipresent God. The pagan rituals that the characters do partake in include a ship burial for the funeral of Scyld, (26-52) a ceremonial pyre for those who died when Finn’s people attacked the Hnaf people (1107-1124) and Beowulf’s cremation funeral (3134-3182). (Irving 178) “Except for temporary apostasy under great stress, they are loyal to the one true God, like the chosen people of the Old Testament.” (Hamilton 310) The Danes pray to heathen gods only when they have no hope due to Grendel’s attacks. The Christian poet condemns them for this but realizes with some sympathy that they cannot help their ignorance.
Metod hīe ne cūþon,
dǣda Dēmend, ne wiston hīe Drihten God
nē hīe hūru heofena Helm herian ne cūþon,
wuldres Waldend. (180-183)

A less obvious element that can be attributed to paganism is the depiction of boars on the helmets worn by the warriors in Beowulf. Boars were sacred animals to the Germanic god Freyr. It is, however, probable that Anglo-Saxon poets inherited the verbal convention that described boar images for heroes’ helmets and therefore the helmets of Beowulf do not necessarily have a special connection to the pagan god.
The curse on the dragon treasure is another pagan element in the Beowulf text. It is born of the superstitions about dragons and curses that come from ancient legends. The Anglo-Saxon belief in dragons was one that remained even with the influx of Christianity. The belief that dragons lived in burial mounds, guarding treasure, was one so prominent in society that it in itself blurred the lines between paganism and Christianity, for it led to the appearance of dragons in the Bible. The treasure-seeking way of life for warriors is another such element of Beowulf that can be traditionally seen as pagan, but in reality has Christian undertones as well. For although it was a Germanic ideal that leaders should gain treasure to give to their people, this ideal can be applied to Christian life as well, for the bible itself promotes the idea of sharing ones wealth on earth. As Robinson affirms, “Loyalty and generosity are praised, and at several points in the poem we are told that the behavior of these heroic ancestors is exemplary even for the Christian audience of the poem.” (151)
In Beowulf the central ethos is the secular, Anglo-Saxon warrior code. This heroic code celebrates bravery, loyalty, and generosity above all. A hero’s goal is to achieve the immortal reputation of fame, which is shown through Beowulf’s request for an extravagant tomb to memorialize him after his death. The longing to achieve such glory is to be expected and praised in a hero, and Beowulf’s people commend him as “lof-geornost” (3182), or “keenest for fame” (O’Brian O’Keefe 108). Along with this pagan-heroic code, readers also encounter the “Germanic Code of Blood Vengeance.” A Germanic hero would naturally feel loyalty for his wronged or murdered people and avenge them by killing their foes. We see this not only through men such as Beowulf, who avenges Hrothgar’s people by killing Grendel, but through the monster, Grendel’s mother, who attempts to avenge her son as well. Yet, even though the fundamental ethical code is steeped in paganism, there are many Christian ideals in the poem. For instance, the overwhelming knowledge characters have of God’s omnipotence and his control over all events is in keeping with Christian teachings. Although there are separate allusions to fate, or “wyrd”, throughout the poem, at times it seems that fate and God’s will are an allied power. Fate seems to be controlled by God. According to Charles W. Kennedy, “God and Wyrd are brought into juxtaposition in such a manner as to imply control of Fate by the superior power of Christian divinity.” (Tietjen 161) Beowulf speaks about the power of both God and wyrd in the same speech. He opens by claiming he must trust in God’s judgment, and ends with the statement “Gǣð ā wyrd swā hīo scel!” (155). Where fate is often cruel, however, God is depicted as more merciful. He helps Beowulf achieve glory and victory over his enemies, while this “pagan” fate is what brought about the curse that killed Beowulf. (162).
Some scholars have taken the view that Beowulf is a radically Christian tale of a pagan hero with virtues who is ultimately doomed because of his ignorance of the Christian god. Other interpretations of the poem call it didactically Christian, such as M. B. McNamee, S.J.’s reading of the text as an allegory for Christ. Less didactic Christian readings of Beowulf can still view the hero is a positive light, seeing Beowulf as a noble, virtuous heathen. Beowulf seems to uphold Christian values regardless of his paganism. He is humble, generous, and he sacrifices his life for his followers. He attributes his victories to God, who gave him unworldly strength.
Weorc genēÞde
earfoðlīce; ætrihte wæs
gūð getwǣfed, nymðe mec God scylde.” (1656-1658).

The pagan king, Hrothgar, is also a noble heathen with almost Christian virtues. His sermon-like speech to Beowulf is instructive and Biblical in nature. The depiction of pagan leaders as monotheistic and righteous combines Christianity and paganism in a positive manner.
The poet’s use of monsters in Beowulf is exemplary of how Christianity and paganism are fused together in the text.

Beowulf’s first monster-battle is with Grendel, who can be directly related to the Old Testament through the allusion to Cain, his ancestor. Monsters would generally be regarded as a pagan element, but the Old Testament, too, has references to monsters and giants. Grendel acts as an opposition to Christian ideals, as he murders men, drinks their blood and eats their flesh, for no reason other than his own hateful nature. As a descendant of Cain he bears the curse of God. Yet, there are also pagan elements here, as the poet describes that out of the curse of Cain sprang ogres, elves, evil phantoms and

giants.
Þanon untȳdras ealle onwōcon,
eotenas ond ylfe ond orcnēas,
swylce gīgantas” (111-113)

Though this idea is taken from a biblical tale, ogres, elves and giants were mythical creatures born of ancient legends and superstitions. As Tolkien describes of the episode with Grendel, “At this point new Scripture and old tradition touched and ignited.” (Tolkien 78) In his battle with Grendel’s mother, Beowulf attributes his victory to heavenly assistance, for God reveals to him the sword that he kills her with. Yet, this sword is blessed with Giant magic, a pagan idea.
Þæt wæs wǣpna cyst,
būton hit wæs māre ðonne ǣnig mon ōðer
tō beadu-lāce ætberan meahte,
gōd ond geatolīc, gīganta geweorc. (1559-1562).

As afore mentioned, the dragon of Beowulf can be connected to ancient pagan myths and beliefs of dragons and their cursed treasure.

Unlike Grendel, the dragon, or “wyrm,” is never outwardly connected to the devil or Christianity. However, a connection between the great serpent and Satan can be easily made. There are instances of Satan appearing in dragon form in the Bible. He appears as a conniving serpent in the Garden of Eden and as a fire-breathing dragon in Chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation.

When admiring the intricate interweaving of Christian faith and pagan-heroic ideas, the question of Beowulf’s fate is inevitable. The poet never explicitly articulates if Beowulf ascends into heaven or descends into hell. Anglo-Saxon readers would know the pagan act of burning Beowulf’s body is a Christian sin. However, readers might assume that Beowulf is rewarded when he dies, because he is a good man, essentially an amalgamation of Christian and heroic attributes, where Grendel is wicked and loathed by God. Fratricide is an evil sin in Christianity and heroic tradition alike, and it is for this sin that Cain’s race was cursed. Therefore, Grendel undoubtedly goes to hell. Beowulf predicts that Unferth, who killed his bother, will go to hell as

well.
Þēah ðū Þīnum brōðrum tō banan wurde,
hēafod-mǣgum; Þæs Þū in helle scealt
werhðo drēogan, Þēah Þīn wit duge. (586-589)

Beowulf, being such a brave and generous hero, does not belong with the likes of the murderous Grendel and Unferth. But, even if his only reward is a pagan one, he at least achieves eternal fame on earth, for as Katherine O’Brien O’Keefe contends, “In the world of Beowulf, a lasting reputation is a warrior's only hope for immortality.” That being said, the poet describes Beowulf as anticipating the judgment of God without fear in his hour of death. As his body burns, albeit in pagan ritual, the poet describes the smoke as being swallowed by heaven. “Heofon rēce swealg” (3155). The ambiguous impression readers are left with in terms of the hero’s afterlife is in keeping with the text’s fusion of Christianity and paganism.
The Christianity in Beowulf is limited in that it is tailored to the dimensions of heroic poetry. Historical evidence shows that in times of the early Anglo-Saxon church, Christianity had been assimilated by the warrior nobility, which had no intention of abandoning its culture, or changing its way of life, but was willing to put its traditions and customs into a new light: that of Christianity. Therefore, Beowulf, as a poem celebrating noble ancestors, is a representative of the secularized culture of its Christian audience. Other scholars look at the blend of Christianity and Paganism as an effort to shed light on the pagan world, showing both its limitations and its appeal. In general, the fusion of Christian and Pagan ideas adds to the depth and intrigue of the text. In terms of the hero himself, as Mary C. Wilson Tietjen describes, “ Beowulf’s deeds of valour and his achievement of earthly fame are the proof that his activities and his achievement of earthly fame are the proof that his activities have been blessed with the grace and guidance of God” (171). Beowulf is essentially a virtuous Germanic warrior who acts out of a concern for the glory and honour that the pagan, heroic code demands, yet does God’s work by saving his people from hellish fiends.