3. Physiology and Anatomy of Nose:
3.1 Nasal Anatomy:
The human nose is the most protruding part of the face which extends approximately 3-5 cm in height externally and 10 cm long nasal cavity internally (Sforza, Grandi, De Menezes, Tartaglia, & Ferrario, 2011). Human nasal cavity starts from external nares (nostrils) to the nasopharynx (the upper section of the throat) which is equally divided by the nasal septum into 2 similar non-connected halves i.e., left- and right-nasal cavity. Anatomically, the nasal cavity is the space between the lower base of the human skull and roof of the mouth which is supported by upside by ethmoid bones, laterally by ethmoid, maxillary and inferior conchae bones and downside by conchae bones (Chien & Chang,
When a nasal drug formulation is delivered deep and high enough, it reaches the brain and CSF via olfactory receptor neurons. While the precise underlying mechanism of transport of the drug from nose to the brain is not entirely understood yet, but recent developments have highlighted the possible pathways of direct transport of drugs to the brain through the nasal route in man. An accumulated evidence of literature showed that nerves emerging from the brain and spinal cord are connected to the nasal cavity, are mainly responsible for the transport of the drug molecule. In addition to this, vasculature system, CSF, and lymphatic system have been played a key role in the nose to brain tissue drug transportation. It is clearly evident that combination of one or two pathways responsible for transportation, although one mechanism may predominate depending upon the delivery device employed, characteristics of neurotherapeutics and formulation
Although olfactory epithelium consists only 3% of the nasal epithelium but this pathway serves as a most direct drug transport route to the brain and CSF, bypassing the BBB (Lisbeth Illum, 2003). It is the simplest and a slow pathway through three different pathways across the olfactory epithelium (i) transcellular pathway involving receptor-mediated endocytosis, fluid phase endocytosis or by passive diffusion. Transcellular pathway is mainly responsible for the transport of the lipophilic drugs and rate of their transport depends on their lipophilicity. (ii) paracellular pathway; this pathway is suitable for the transport of the hydrophilic drugs most probably occur by passive diffusion via tight junctions between sustentacular cells and olfactory neurons or open clefts in the membrane. The rate of drug transportation through this pathway mainly depends on the molecular weight of the drug. Drugs having a molecular weight less than 1000 Da easily transport through this mechanism and gives good bioavailability without any absorption enhancer. (iii) Olfactory nerve pathway; where the drug is mainly transported via intraneuronal (axonal transport) or extraneuronal pathway through perineural channels. The intraneuronal pathway is a slow and takes hours to days for drug transportation to the different brain region. Extraneuronal pathways allow the drug
Chinese and Malaysian Homo Sapiens have very close features to the Neanderthal. The skull analysis of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens are usually considered more accurate if the entire skull is examined, rather than certain ...
Most of the time, it is from smoking. The tissue in the lungs will become inflame and produce mucous because of exposure to these chemicals. Theophylline and ß2 agonist will act to relax and dilate the airways and allow more oxygen to enter. They will also decrease the lungs sensitivity so that they do not react so much to inhaled chemicals.
The integumentary system has five main functions. The five main functions of the integumentary system are protection, regulation, sensation, absorption, and secretion. It consists of the hair, nails, skin, sebaceous and sweat glands. The largest organ of the entire body is the skin. The skin consists of three different layers. The epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer, these are the three layers of the skin. There is a layer that is deeper than the skin and contains body fat, that layer is called the hypodermis. Sweat glands are also called sudoriferous glands. One of the functions of the skin is to maintain homeostasis. Synthesis of vitamin D, excretion of urea, excretion of salts and water are a few things that the skin is also capable of. The top layer of the skin is called the epidermis. The epidermis contains five different layers. These layers are the stratum corneum, the stratum lucidum, the stratum spinosum, and the stratum basale. In the epidermis there are four different cell types. The keratinocytes which produce keratin, the merkel cells that are sensitive to touch, the langerhans cells which is a dendritic type off cell, and the melanocytes which produce melanin.
This paper discusses pharmacology and terminology related to “Pharmacology” which is the branch of medicine concerned with the uses, effects, and modes of action of drugs“ pharmacology. 2015. In Merriam-Webster.com. The study of different classes of drugs, routes of absorption, and drugs have effects on those consuming them. There are drugs that are necessary for illnesses and healing but, there are medicines that cause concern regarding interaction and harming the body.
The first way Laila’s brain guesses that her fiends have ordered pizza at the dorm is because of her ability to smell the pizza. Her ability to smell is because her first cranial nerve, also known as the olfactory nerve, is functioning well. This nerve is responsible for relaying sensory data to the brain and results in the sense of smell. Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa in the nasal cavity. When airborne chemicals and particles travel to the nasal cavity, they interact with the receptors. Despite the olfactory nerve being part of the nervous system, it does not join the brainstem and is considered the shortest cranial nerve. When Laila breathes in air, the molecules attach to her olfactory mucosa and her olfactory receptors
Nasopharynx is located at the top of the pharynx, posterior to the nose and above the soft palate. The nasopharynx is lined by a thin layer of respiratory epithelium and most nasopharyngeal carcinoma arises from these cells, that are large polygonal cells with a syncytial composition. The nasopharynx is a part of the pharynx together with the oropharynx and hypopharynx. The main function of the nasopharynx is respiration as it connects the nose to the rest of the pharynx (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007). This structure allows air to flow into the lungs and thereby if it’s primary function is disturbed, the clinical manifestation that would be seen would involve respiration. In this patient, what is most relevant social history is patient smoking history in relation to her nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
Jones, D. H. (2006-2010). Chapter 3: The Nervous System and the Brain. Retrieved from http://www.nasalspecific.com/nasalspecific_011.htm
accumulate in the kidneys, lungs, liver, spleen digestive tract, and muscles as well the brain.
Neurotransmitters can also produce their effects by modulating the production of other signal-transducing molecules ("second messengers"messengers") in the post-synaptic cells (Cooper, Bloom and Roth 1996). Nine compounds -- belonging to three chemical families -- are generally believed to function as neurotransmitters somewhere in the central nervous system (CNS) or periphery. In addition, certain other body chemicals, for example adenosine, histamine, enkephalins, endorphins, and epinephrine, have neurotransmitter-like properties, and many additional true neurotransmitters may await discovery.
Pharmacokinetics provides a basis to assess the course of drugs and their effects on the body (Dhillon & Kostrzewski, 2006). The processes of pharmacokinetics can be broken down into the absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion in, through, and out of the body. These are major concepts that guide medication use and dosage selection (Association of Surgical Technologists, 2017).
The nose is divided into the right and left cavities and is lined with tiny hairs and mucous membrane, which secretes a sticky fluid, called mucus, which helps prevent dust and bacteria from entering the lungs. The nose moistens, warms and filters the air and is an organ, which senses smell. The naso-pharynx is the upper part of the nasal cavity behind the nose, and is lined with mucous membrane. The naso-pharynx continues to filter, warm and moisten the incoming air.
“Pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) can be seen as two sides of the same coin. PK and PD have a definite relationship, assessing how much drug gets to the site of action and then what that action is. Both activities are essential in the complete investigation of the interaction between the drug and body, and play significant roles in both drug development and their continual use in the clinical setting (Institute Of Clinical Research, Clinical Pharmacology Special Interest Group, Pharmacokinetics vs. Pharmacodynamics).”
...a concentration builds up. When the amount of drug has built up to effective therapeutic regimen and there are balance between administered and clearance of drug, it is known as a steady state which usually takes four half-life of a drug to be stable. Since doripenem has short half-life (1 hour), it will take short time to reach the steady state. The renal clearance is 10.8L/h. Renal clearance demonstrates the excretion of drug into the urine by the kidneys. The value of renal clearance suggests that doripenem is prominent to go through glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion as the renal clearance value is more than the product of glomerular filtration rate by the unbound fraction. However, all mechanism of excretion are operating at the same time including tubular reabsorption, but in doripenem case, only filtration and secretion dominate over the other.
Have you ever dealt with severe pain and discomfort in your sinuses? Or have you ever had headaches or sore throats but categorized it as merely a migraine or cold? Many people may not know that these are symptoms for Sinusitis, a very common health issue that affects 37 million people a year (Balloon Sinuplasty). Sinusitis is “an inflammation of the mucous lining of the nasal passages and sinuses” (University Maryland Medical Center).). Although sinusitis originates from the nasal passages, there are numerous symptoms that can lead to sinusitis. Sinusitis can begin when one experiences difficulty breathing through the nose, throbbing headaches, and swelling of the area around the eyes and face. In addition, thick green or yellow discharge from the nose or back of the throat is a sign of sinusitis. It is imperative to see an ENT (Ear, Neck, and Throat) doctor if these symptoms occur, particularly after one experiences a cold or allergies. If a doctor is not seen immediately, one can develop serious and long term issues such as swelling around the eyes, skin redness, severe facial pain, sensitivity to light, neck stiffness, feelings of weakness and apathy, and high fever (Pubmed Health). Many people may not realize the severity of sinusitis. There are four types of sinusitis: acute, subacute, chronic, and recurrent. Acute sinusitis lasts up to 4 weeks, subacute sinusitis lasts from 4 to 12 weeks, chronic sinusitis lasts more than 12 weeks but can linger for months and years, and recurrent occurs several times within a year (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases). Although there are home treatments and surgical procedures for Sinusitis, Balloon Sinuplasty is the newest and invasive surgical option that proves to be ...
Chronic sinusitis can be extremely difficult to endure and with the illness come chronic fatigue, which makes it even harder to manage. One of the hallmark symptoms of sinusitis is, in fact, fatigue. In order to regain the ability to function normally, the issue has to clear up with treatment.