Introduction
Acetaminophen, also known as Paracetamol, is an organic compound that is commonly used as a medication for pain and fever relief. It has been around for a while and is found under several different brand names around the world. With research, the chemistry behind acetaminophen can be discovered as well as its practical applications, its adverse effects to society and the environment, and other information surrounding this compound.
The History
In the middle ages, Antipyretic agents (for preventing or reducing fevers) were compounds found in the bark of white willow and cinchona trees. Alternatives to this were eventually sought for in the 1880s as the cinchona tree had become scarce. In the 1880s, the development of alternative antipyretic agents began to develop acetanilide in 1886 and phenacetin the following year. At this point in time, Harmon Northrop Morse had already synthesized
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There are three steps that occur in the synthesis of acetaminophen. First is the nitration of phenol, where phenol (hydroxybenzene) reacts with sodium nitrate, which is an oxidizing agent, while in the presence of sulfuric acid. This produces a mixture of structural isomers of nitrophenol. The second step is the reduction of a nitro group to an amine. In this case, oxygen is lost from the nitro group of 4-nitrophenol and a hydrogen is added to form 4-aminophenol, an amine. By the weak forces of attraction of a catalyst, the 4-nitrophenol molecules are held to the surface of the catalysts; the strong covalent bonds in the nitro group are then weakened and are vulnerable to be attacked by hydrogen. The final step is the formation of an amide. Most amines undergo reactions with anhydrides to produces amides. 4-aminophenol is suspended in water at room temperature and reacts readily with ethanoic anhydride, which is an acetic anhydride, producing a precipitate of the amide, which is the acetaminophen. (“Paracetamol
Let’s begin with the structure. The structure of Atenolol is as follows: its chemical formula is C14H22N2O3, its relative molecular mass is 266.3g, and its chemical name is (RS)-4-(2-hydroxy-3-isopropylaminopropoxy)phenylacetamide. The physical appearance of the drug itself is a white colored powder that is odorless. The way atenolol, as well as other beta-blockers, work, is that they affect the different beta-recptors located within the human body. Every human has a certain number of beta-receptors located throughout the body, in places such as the heart, lungs, brain, etc. When a person takes a dose of atenolol, it reacts with the beta-receptors to either calm anxiety or treat blood pressure, without altering a person’s actions.
The mechanism of liver injury is related to the fact that small amounts of acetaminophen are converted to a toxic metabolite. The toxic metabolite binds with liver proteins to cause cellular injury. The amount of toxic metabolite produced and the ability of the liver to remove this metabolite before it binds to liver protein influence the extent of liver injury.
Innovated by the fact that ancient people use willow bark to ease pain, the first chemically pure and stable acetylsalicylic acid was synthesized by a German chemist called Felix Hoffmann, in 1897 (Bayer AG, 2011). Aspirin was firstly taken by his father in order to reduce his arthritis pain. Aspirin successfully eased the pain. After two years’ laboratory experiment, aspirin as a product was first launched by Bayer AG in 1899 (Bayer AG, 2011). The coming world war accidentally boosted the demand of aspirin.
In September of 1982 seven people from Chicago died after taking Tylenol capsules. Tylenol was the leading pain-killer medicine in the United States at the time. It was reported that an unknown suspect put 65 milligrams of deadly cyanide into Tylenol capsules. It was assumed that the tampering occurred once the product reached the shelves. They were removed from the shelves, infected with cyanide and returned to the shelves (Mitchell 1989).
In the fall of 1982, customers consuming Tylenol tablets, mainly in the Chicago, Illinois area, mysteriously began to die. For unknown reasons, someone replaced the Tylenol capsules with cyanide-laced capsules. The packages were resealed and were then dropped onto the shelves of pharmacies throughout Chicago. As a result, seven people
During the 1900's, the McNeil company developed and established Tylenol into a well known and recommended analgesic. It has become recognized world wide as a safe brand of acetaminophen. The name Tylenol has become identified as a trusted, safe drug that people can easily purchase over the counter for their ailments. Tylenol is still recommended by doctors even though there was a cyanide scare in the history of the company. It has been discovered by my independent survey that consumers use Tylenol for their pet's needs also.
Acetaminophen is ingested orally and is rapidly and completely absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract. It works in about one hour. The liver detoxifies 90% of it by mixing it with sulfuric acid, and another 3-5% is catabolized by enzyme reactions to the acid. The metabolites are excreted in the urine.
Acetaminophen is in over 200 over the counter drugs but mainly know through Tylenol It is every safe when used as directed even for people with liver disease. Acetaminophen can cause liver damage when taken in overdosing amounts or taken regularly without a doctors directions. Also if regularly taken while consuming alcohol. Symptoms from a damaged liver from Acetaminophen are nauseas and vomiting the first 24 hours after taking medication after that the damage has been done to your liver. Acetaminophen is used to most commonly treat headache, muscle aches, arthritis, backache, toothaches, colds, and fevers. Acetaminophen rarely causes serious damage to the liver mostly just cause’s elevation of liver
Para-nitrophenol is a stronger acid then phenol itself because the nitro group on the p-nitrophenol is a strong electron-withdrawing group. This strong deactivating nitro group attracts the loan pair from the oxygen towards itself by resonance so the O-H bond gets weak and the proton gets more susceptible to getting taken off. When the proton is pulled off the resonance stabilizes the negative charge creating a weak conjugate base. In contrast the phenol doesn’t have the nitro group to electron withdraw therefore it maintains the stronger electronegativity of the oxygen and the proton is not easily pulled off. As known before an acid donates a proton and has a weak conjugate base therefore the acidity is stronger for the nitrophenol then a
Pain killers, such as acetaminophen, while very useful and commonly use do present a health issue to the public. As noted through news stories, television shows, and maybe even through our own families, acetaminophen can become quite addictive. While only having such medications available through prescription only, which could cause public outcry, it is done so for safety. People of any age who take these medication could fall under the abuse habit and become addicted to the drug(s). Acetaminophen, and similar drugs, could tip the benefit-risk assessment in the negative direction. Having commonly used medications such as acetaminophen, only available through a prescription would be more of a hassle (when compared to a OTC version) and would upset several people, but again it is done this way for safety of the overall
Aspirin is an over-the-counter drug that is most often used to suppress fever, pain, and other soreness or ailments. It is synthesized from a variety of different acids and buffers that work in unison to make the user healthier. Some components of the drug, such as salicylic acid, are highly irritating when ingested and sometimes cause fatal side effects. In order to prevent this from occurring, an acetyl group is added in place of a hydrogen, thereby forming acetylsalicylic acid. This is also known as synthesized aspirin. Another means of creating aspirin is adding acetic anhydride rather than acetic acid and using an acid catalyst, such as sulfuric acid, to speed up the reaction. Both of these reactions yield the same products, acetyl salicylic acid.
Background Information Aspirin is an analgesic (pain relieving) and an antipyretic drug (a drug that lowers body temperature). The main constituent of aspirin is 2 - ethanoythydroxybenzoic acid, also known as acetylsalicyclic acid (shown below right). It was originally made from just salicylic acid (which is found in the bark of a willow tree) when used by the Ancient Greeks to counter fever and pain, but its bitterness and tendency to irritate the stomach caused problems. These were resolved by the German chemist Felix Hoffman, who made the acetyl derivative of salicylic acid in the
This yellow like substance can accumulate in the body since heme cannot break it down and cause the yellow discoloration that is often seen with a patient who is suffering from cirrhosis. A liver panel test should be done to determine how well the liver is functioning. Certain medications can also cause liver damage. For example, Tylenol in large doses and frequent use can cause this and in a relatively short period of time. “However, taking too much acetaminophen at once, or taking a high dose of acetaminophen continuously over several days can cause damage to the liver” (“Medications,” n.d.).. “Healthy individuals should not take more than 1,000 mg of acetaminophen per dose, and should not take more than 3,000 mg in one day” (“Medications,” n.d.). Educating patients on how to prevent liver damage when taking Tylenol should be done to prevent future illnesses. Other medications such as those that treat cholesterol as well as some supplements and herbs should be carefully monitored. “Some of the natural products known to be toxic to the liver include chaparral, comfrey tea, kava, skullcap, and Yohimbe, but there are others” (“Medications,” n.d.). Iron and vitamin A are known to be toxic to the liver and should not be taken unless there is some type of
Also it will act with n-octanol because of the non-polar hydrocarbons. Aspirin has acidic functional group so it will also react with NaOH to form a salt (carboxylate ion) and it will interact with n-octanol also same as paracetamol in addition of presence of ester which lipophilic. Phenyl butazone contains acidic functional group (β-Dicarbonyl) which will interact with NaOH to give a salt (–OCO-). Also there will be interaction with HNO3 by tertiary amine which will give NH+. In n-octanol will be a reaction because of the hydrocarbon molecule. In Diclofenac there is interaction with NaOH by carboxylic acid to give a salt (carboxylate ion) and the aromatic amine with HNO3 to give (NH2+) also with n-octanol as there are hydrocarbons. Piroxicam there is interaction with NaOH with amide to give (N--C=O) and interaction with HNO3 with secondary amine (NH+) as well as interaction with n-octanol because of the hydrocarbons. Oxaprozin has carboxylic acid which react with NaOH to give (Carboxylate ion) and it has secondary amine which reacts with HNO3 to give (NH+) plus interaction with n-octanol as there are hydrocarbons and
Johnson & Johnson’s cyanide-laced Tylenol capsules in 1982 was a crisis where seven people died after taking the extra-strength Tylenol capsules that had been laced with potassium cyanide, a deadly poison, and the killer was never found (Bhasin, 2011.) In response, the company put their customers' safety first and pulled 31 million bottles of Tylenol, $100 million worth, of the shelves and stopped their production and even their advertisement (Bhasin, 2011.) After this crisis,