In 1924, the Indian physicist S. N. Bose developed an alternate law of radiation which modified Planck's laws to include a new variety of particles, namely, the boson. He sent off his theory to Einstein for revision and translation, and Einstein swiftly came up with some additions to the theory. He expanded the laws to incorporate the mass of the boson, and in doing so theorized a strange phenomenon. He predicted that when atoms of a gas came together under cold enough temperatures, and slowed down significantly, that they would all assume the exact same quantum state. He knew that this slow quantum gas would have strange properties, but wasn't able to get much further by theorizing. This phenomenon, which came to be known as a Bose-Einstien condensate, was an incredible leap in quantum theory, but it wasn't demonstrated until 1995 when Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman made the first Bose-Einstein condensate with supercooled alkali gas atoms. Although this development didn't come until late in the 20th century, many of these strange properties were observed in supercooled He4 by Dr. Pyotr Kapitsa. Helium became the standard for observing superfluid phenomenon, and most new superfluid properties are still observed first in Helium 4.
Superconductivity, a similar phenomenon, was discovered in 1911 by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. When he cooled some mercury down to liquid helium temperatures, it began to conduct electricity with no resistance at all. People began experimenting with other metals, and found that many tranisition metals exhibit this characteristic of 0 resistance if cooled sufficiently. Superconductors are analagous to superfluids in that the charges within them move somewhat like a superfluid - with no resistance through sections of extremely small cross-sectional area. Physicists soon discovered that oxides of copper and other compounds could reach even higher superconducting temperatures. Currently, the highest temperature at wich a material can be superconductive is 138K, and is held by the compound Hg0.8Tl0.2Ba2Ca2Cu3O8.33.
Superfluids all have the unique quality that all their atoms are in the same quantum state. This means they all have the same momentum, and if one moves, they all move. This allows superfluids to move without friction through the tiniest of cracks, and superfluid helium will even flow up the sides of a jar and over the top. This apparant defiance of gravity comes from a special type of surface wave present in superfluid helium, which in effect pushes this extremely thin film up the sides of the container.
According to Einstein’s equation, the physicists of the Manhattan project hypothesized that a minute mass can create a vast amount of energy.... ... middle of paper ... ... Works Cited The “German Nuclear Energy Project” Wikipedia.
Albert Einstein predicted that mass could be converted into energy early in the century and was confirmed experimentally by John D. Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in 1932. In 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered that neutrons striking the element uranium caused the atoms to split apart. Physicists found out that among the pieces of a split atom were newly produced neutrons. These might encounter other uranium nuclei, caused them to split, and start a chain reaction. If the chain reaction were limited to a moderate pace, a new source of energy could be the result. The chain reaction could release energy rapidly and with explosive force.
The cathode ray tube was invented in 1875 by the name of Sir Williams Crooke. Yet he wasn’t the one to make the big discovery. In 1897, a man by the name of J.J. Thompson conducted a series of experiments to prove the existence of subatomic particles. He wasn’t 100% correct with all of his claims he made but broke the theory John Dalton stated that the smallest form matter could be broken down to was an atom. Having shown the world that there was smaller than an atom, it later caused others to question and dive even deeper.
Oppenheimer's early studies were devoted mainly to energy processes of subatomic particles, including electrons,positrons, and cosmic rays. He also did innovative work on not only neutron stars but also black holes. His university provided him with an excellent opportunity to research the quantum theory, along with exploration and development of its full significance. This helped him train an entire generation of U.S. physicists. Furthermore, the most important impact was the invention of the atomic bomb.
Between 1892 and 1896, Nagaoka studied abroad in Vienna, Berlin, and Munich, where he was particularly fascinated by Ludwig Boltzmann’s course in the Kinetic Theory of Gases and Maxwell’s work on the stability of Saturn’s rings. Two influences which would later lead to the development of the Saturnian model of the atom in 1904. He traveled to many places...
physics. The work of Ernest Rutherford, H. G. J. Moseley, and Niels Bohr on atomic
The amazing transformation the study of physics underwent in the two decades following the turn of the 20th century is a well-known story. Physicists, on the verge of declaring the physical world “understood”, discovered that existing theories failed to describe the behavior of the atom. In a very short time, a more fundamental theory of the ...
It was Italian-born physicist and Nobel winner Enrico Fermi, and his colleagues at the University of Chicago who were responsible for this success (“Nuclear”).
a gigantic tug of war. With gravity pulling down, and centrifugal force pulling up, the material has to be
Stemming from the first years of the 20th century, quantum mechanics has had a monumental influence on modern science. First explored by Max Planck in the 1900s, Einstein modified and applied much of the research in this field. This begs the question, “how did Einstein contribute to the development and research of quantum mechanics?” Before studying how Einstein’s research contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, it is important to examine the origins of the science itself. Einstein took much of Planck’s experimental “quantum theory” research and applied it in usable ways to existing science. He also greatly contributed to the establishment of the base for quantum mechanics research today. Along with establishing base research in the field, Einstein’s discoveries have been modified and updated to apply to our more advanced understanding of this science today. Einstein greatly contributed to the foundation of quantum mechanics through his research, and his theories and discoveries remain relevant to science even today.
In March, Einstein creates the quantum theory of light, the idea that light exists as tiny packets, or particles, that we now call photons. Alongside Max Planck's work on quanta of heat, and Niels Bohr's later work on quanta of matter, Einstein's work anchors the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics: we live in a quantum universe, one built out of tiny, discrete chunks of energy and matter.
John Dalton also published a lot of papers on atoms. His most famous article was on "absorption of gases by water and other liquids," this article contained his atomic theory.
Since the days of Aristotle, all substances have been classified into one of three physical states. A substance having a fixed volume and shape is a solid. A substance, which has a fixed volume but not a fixed shape, is a liquid; liquids assume the shape of their container but do not necessarily fill it. A substance having neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume is a gas; gases assume both the shape and the volume of their container. The structures of gases, and their behavior, are simpler than the structures and behavior of the two condensed phases, the solids and the liquids
The development of superconductors has been a working progress for many years and some superconductors are already in use, but there is always room for improvement. In 1911, Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes first discovered superconductivity when he cooled mercury to 4 degrees K (-452.47º F / -269.15º C). At this temperature, mercury’s resistance to electricity seemed to disappear. Hence, it was necessary for Onnes to come within 4 degrees of the coldest temperature that is theoretically attainable to witness the phenomenon of superconductivity. Later, in 1933 Walter Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered that a superconducting material will repel a magnetic field. A magnet moving by a conductor induces currents in the conductor, which is the principle upon which the electric generator operates. However, in a superconductor the induced currents exactly mirror the field that would have otherwise penetrated the superconducting material - causing the magnet to be repulsed- known today as the “Meissner effect.” The Meissner effect is so strong that a magnet can actually be levitated over a superconductive material, which increases the use of superconductors. After many other superconducting elements, compounds, and theories related to superconductivity were developed or discovered a great breakthrough was made. In 1986, Alex Muller and Georg Bednorz invented a ceramic substance which superconducted at the highest temperature then known: 30 K (-243.15º C). This discovery was remarkable because ceramics are normally insulators – they do not conduct electricity well. Since their discovery the highest temperature for superconductivity to occur is 138 K (-130.15º C).
Scientists from earlier times helped influence the discoveries that lead to the development of atomic energy. In the late 1800’s, Dalton created the Atomic Theory which explains atoms, elements and compounds (Henderson 1). This was important to the study of and understanding of atoms to future scientists. The Atomic Theory was a list of scientific laws regarding atoms and their potential abilities. Roentagen, used Dalton’s findings and discovered x-rays which could pass through solid objects (Henderson 1). Although he did not discover radiation from the x-rays, he did help lay the foundations for electromagnetic waves. Shortly after Roentagen’s findings, J.J. Thompson discovered the electron which was responsible for defining the atom’s characteristics (Henderson 2). The electron helped scientists uncover why an atom responds to reactions the way it does and how it received its “personality”. Dalton’s, Roentagen’s and Thompson’s findings helped guide other scientists to discovering the uses of atomic energy and reactions. Such applications were discovered in the early 1900’s by using Einstein’s equation, which stated that if a chain reaction occurred, cheap, reliable energy could b...