Introduction There has been a proliferation of interest in the development and nature of individual’s thinking patterns and processes following traumatic psychological exposure (Ehlers, Mayou, & Bryant, 1998). In particular, previous research has suggested that specific thinking styles and patterns preceding trauma predict a greater vulnerability and a poorer long-term prognosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Dalgleish, 2004). Moreover, the literature has illustrated that adolescents can be predisposed to developing PTSD which develops as a result of either direct or indirect exposure to a trauma. For example, witnessing a trauma directly or learning about a specific traumatic event experienced by others (Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman, 1994). Previous research has highlighted that adolescents that have been exposed to a trauma and PTSD may also be more vulnerable to developing aggressive and antisocial behaviours (Falshaw, Browne & Hollin, 1996), alcohol and drug dependence, hypervigilance and impulsive misconduct (Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Wikström, Loeber & Novak, 2000). Erwin, Newman, McMackin, Morrissey and Kaloupek (2000) suggest that a reason for this is that early exposure to trauma can have severe impact on adolescent’s functioning in terms of their emotions, cognition and behaviour, poor self-regulation and information-processing. Adding to this, Tyson & Goodman, (1996) suggest that it is these deficits in functioning coupled with the individual’s inability to regulate emotions that predispose them to engaging in protective aggression and dangerous re-enactment behaviours as a way of dealing with their exposure to trauma. The link between dysfunctional cognitions and PTSD has been widely explored by various researchers, and it has been suggested that a tight relationship exists between PTSD and antisocial behaviour in youths (Danckwerts & Leathem, 2003). However, little is yet known about the psychological mechanisms which underlie the relationship. This literature review will explore the underlying mechanisms which predict a greater vulnerability to the onset, development and maintenance of PTSD associated with young offenders. More specifically, depressive cognitions such as rumination and counterfactual thinking will be explored with reference to their link with PTSD. Defining Rumination and Counterfactual Thinking Individuals affected by PTSD often report symptoms of incessant ruminative thinking associated with a traumatic experience. The DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) does not however distinguish intrusive rumination and intrusive memories associated with the trauma in the development of PTSD. However, more recently various theoretical perspectives propose that the two are functionally distinct and should be regarded as separate entities (Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Joseph, Williams & Yule, 1997; Ehlers & Steil, 1997).
The first phase is psychoeducation and parenting skills. In the first sessions we discuss the definition and nature of trauma, the effects of trauma on the brain, how it affects cognitions, behaviors, etc. This treatment approach focuses on trauma—it is in the name. It does not necessarily require a formal PTSD diagnosis, but the psychoeducation does focus on the effects of trauma, and the impact of post-traumatic stress. Essentially, it focuses on the label and “mental illness” of PTSD. Reality therapy would shy away from a focus on illness. Reality therapy would encourage the clinician to avoid the labels and focus on the choices behind the condition (pg. 15). Unfortunately, for victims of severe trauma, the neurological impact is very real. Ignoring it will not help the treatment process.
A study done by Kylie Sutherland and Richard Bryant in 2007, highlights the importance of memory in PTSD symptoms. For their study, they took 20 PTSD victims who had either been involved in a non-sexual assault or a motor vehicle accident. They had the participants look at positive and negative cue words and asked them to point out a memory for each. They took five words for e...
The article “The Effects of Trauma Types, Cumulative Trauma, and PTSD on IQ in Two Highly Traumatized Adolescent Groups” describes the correlation between traumatic type, PTSD and IQ. The hypothesis of this study was that the different trauma types have different influences. This article digs into the correlation between traumatic type, PTSD, and IQ. The study consisted of 390 African American adolescents and Iraqi refugee adolescents. The thesis of this study was “that different trauma types have different influences, some positive and some negative” (128). The study concluded that the higher levels of IQ may serve as a ‘premorbid protective” factor or that verbal IQ may be negatively impacted by PTSD symptoms. It was found that performance on standardized tests of memory were severely impaired. This was especially true for children who have bee...
“Studies show that PTSD occurs in 1%-14% of the population. It can be diagnosed at any age, and can occ...
The article under review is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the DSM-5: Controversy, Change, and Conceptual Considerations by Anushka Pai, Alina M. Suris, and Carol S. North in Behavioral Sciences. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental health problem that some people develop after experiencing or witnessing a life-threatening event, like combat, a natural disaster, a car accident, or sexual assault (U.S. Department VA, 2007). PTSD can happen to anyone and many factors can increase the possibility of developing PTSD that are not under the person’s own control. Symptoms of PTSD usually will start soon after the traumatic event but may not appear for months or years later. There are four types of symptoms of PTSD but may show in different
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is defined by our book, Abnormal Psychology, as “an extreme response to a severe stressor, including increased anxiety, avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, and symptoms of increased arousal.” In the diagnosis of PTSD, a person must have experienced an serious trauma; including “actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation.” In the DSM-5, symptoms for PTSD are grouped in four categories. First being intrusively reexperiencing the traumatic event. The person may have recurring memories of the event and may be intensely upset by reminders of the event. Secondly, avoidance of stimuli associated with the event, either internally or externally. Third, signs of mood and cognitive change after the trauma. This includes blaming the self or others for the event and feeling detached from others. The last category is symptoms of increased arousal and reactivity. The person may experience self-destructive behavior and sleep disturbance. The person must have 1 symptom from the first category, 1 from the second, at least 2 from the third, and at least 2 from the fourth. The symptoms began or worsened after the trauma(s) and continued for at least one
Answers to these questions are complex and incomplete. As an anxiety disorder, PTSD has its foundations in fear and "emotional memory." Like factual memory, emotional memory also involves the storage and recall of events and details; this has been termed the explicit or conscious memory (2). Emotional memory, though, has a second, distinct component. This facet, t...
There are two types of trauma that lead to PTSD symptoms among young people. One is exposure to a sudden, one-time event whereas the other is the result of exposure of repeated events. No matter what the “cause” was the condition in childhood and adolescence can effect normal development which can disrupt the acquisition of the skills necessary for a child to become self-sufficient. Because brain development occurs fairly rapidly if a trauma is experiences parts of the brain may slow or stop in their development process. This paper will discuss how to recognize and treat PTSD, limitations of treatment options, treatment options, training for professionals, and ethnic differences.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, also known as PTSD, is an anxiety disorder that can develop after a traumatic event (Riley). A more in depth definition of the disorder is given by Doctor’s Nancy Piotrowski and Lillian Range, “A maladaptive condition resulting from exposure to events beyond the realm of normal human experience and characterized by persistent difficulties involving emotional numbing, intense fear, helplessness, horror, re-experiencing of trauma, avoidance, and arousal.” People who suffer from this disease have been a part of or seen an upsetting event that haunts them after the event, and sometimes the rest of their lives. There are nicknames for this disorder such as “shell shock”, “combat neurosis”, and “battle fatigue” (Piotrowski and Range). “Battle fatigue” and “combat neurosis” refer to soldiers who have been overseas and seen disturbing scenes that cause them anxiety they will continue to have when they remember their time spent in war. It is common for a lot of soldiers to be diagnosed with PTSD when returning from battle. Throughout the history of wars American soldiers have been involved in, each war had a different nickname for what is now PTSD (Pitman et al. 769). At first, PTSD was recognized and diagnosed as a personality disorder until after the Vietnam Veterans brought more attention to the disorder, and in 1980 it became a recognized anxiety disorder (Piotrowski and Range). There is not one lone cause of PTSD, and symptoms can vary from hallucinations to detachment of friends and family, making a diagnosis more difficult than normal. To treat and in hopes to prevent those who have this disorder, the doctor may suggest different types of therapy and also prescribe medication to help subside the sympt...
Boone, Katherine. "The Paradox of PTSD." Wilson Quarterly. 35.4 (2011): 18-22. Web. 14 Apr. 2014.
...manifest developmental, behavioral, and emotional problems. This implies the interpersonal nature of trauma and may explain the influence of veteran Posttraumatic Stress Disorder on the child’s development and eventual, long-term and long-lasting consequences for the child’s personality. (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2525831).
With people who are suffering from PTSD their brain is still in overdrive long after the trauma has happened. They may experience things like flashbacks, nightmares, hallucinations, panic attacks, and deep depression. They tend to avoid things that remind them of their trauma and are constantly on high alert waiting for the next possible traumatic event to take place; in events such...
Trauma relates to a type of damage to the mind that comes from a severely distressing event. A traumatic event relates to an experience or repeating events that overwhelmingly precipitated in weeks, months, or decades as one tries to cope with the current situations that can cause negative consequences. People’s general reaction to these events includes intense fear, helplessness or horror. When children experience trauma, they show disorganized or agitative behavior. In addition, the trigger of traumas includes some of the following, harassment, embarrassment, abandonment, abusive relationships, rejection, co-dependence, and many others. Long-term exposure to these events, homelessness, and mild abuse general psychological
Another leading cause of PTSD most commonly found in this day and age in people is neglect. With all the technology running our planet today and social media, cheating and neglect of important relationships occur quite often. Social media enables people to cheat without even knowing or realizing it as well as takes away precious time you have with the people whom are surrounding you at that moment. Also neglect can occur when violence transpires within the home and can have very serious effects on the ones in the household. “Neglect may be co-morbid with witnessing family violence. In the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, the first nationally representative study of children referred to the child welfare system (Burns et al., 2004), high rates of domestic violence were reported (Hazen et al., 2004). In a twin study of 1116 families of monozygotic and dizygotic 5 year old twin pairs, children exposed to high levels of domestic violence had IQs that were on average 8 points lower than unexposed children (Koenen et
Williams, R. (2007). The psychosocial consequences for children of mass violence, terrorism and disasters. International Review Of Psychiatry, 19(3), 263-277.