Medical ethics refers to the standards of conduct and associated values which govern the relationship between practitioner and patient in biomedical contexts. Adding to this concept is bioethics that covers the values and standards that should apply to research (scientific), doctors, nurses and other biomedical practitioner’s activities. Bioethics attempts to influence how practitioners of biomedicine act within the realms of biomedicine. Yet, it is apparent that both of these concepts (medical and bioethics) tend only to govern western biomedicine.
The alternative, medical ethno-ethics, Richard Lieban suggests is the “moral tenets and problems of health care as they are conceived and reacted to by members of a society” (as cited in Joralemon, 2010, p. 106). Is medical ethno-ethics an alternative to medical and bioethics, applicable to both traditional systems of healing and biomedicine?
For the purposes of this assignment (in particular part a), I will discuss ethics and whether or not a universal concept can be applicable to all systems of healing that acknowledges the many cultural norms and values that guide healing behaviours, and discuss the anthropologist intervening in a medical context. For Part b, I will discuss psychoactive substances (party pills) and animal testing as a current medical ethical issue in New Zealand.
So, is it possible to have a code of ethics that is universally applicable to all systems of healing, biomedicine, traditional and all those in between?
To understand what therapeutic methods has to do with each culture’s definitions of medicine, treatment, health and the boundaries that may (or may not) separate healing practices from religions, or political, or familial. We will see healing merging w...
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...human consumption is due to the testing of toxic substances on animals for results that may produce both false positives and false negatives. That drugs produce different effects in animals as they do in humans, for example, caffeine which is highly toxic to dogs (and is found in party pills) is virtually harmless to humans. To the point that animal testing conducted outside of New Zealand is of greater risk to the animal as many countries, such as China and India who conduct animal testing have little to no animal welfare protection for the animals used. We must consider whether psychoactive substances (that have no medical benefits) that fall under the ‘legal high’ umbrella have a place within our society, and whether we can accept the harmful and potentially fatal testing of animals to provide possibly inaccurate data for optional recreational drug use.
Ross defines and differentiates between the terms healing and curing. She recognizes the fact that healing and curing are very intertwined and it can be hard to distinguish between the two terms. There are differences between the definitions in scholarly and general settings. She references an ethnographic study of healing versus curing conducted by anthropologists Andrew Strathern and Pamela Stewart in 1999 with native groups in New Guinea. The results of the study looked at how energy used by the different types of tribal healers to either cure or heal a patient. Eastern medicine focuses on how energy interacts with the healing process in connection within the mind. Whereas Western medicine is focused on the mind and the body separately. The practice is considered a holistic approach to finding cures. According to Ross (2013), healing is more a therapeutic process targeting the whole body and specific illness including emotional, mental, and social aspects in the treatment. The act of curing is a pragmatic approach that focuses on removing the problem all together. The life experiences of a person playing into how well certain treatments will heal or cure what is ailing them. These aspects can not be defined with textbook definitions. The interaction that the healing process has with energy is a variable in the success rate. Uncontrolled emotions can have a greater impact on the inside the body than a person can realize. The exploration of energy interaction within the body can be used for greater analysis of health care systems. (21-22). Are Western healthcare facilities purposely “curing” patients just so that they return are few years later? Is Western Medicine built upon a negative feedback loop? The terminolo...
Anderson et al. (2010) viewed the healing setting as shared beliefs between the client and the practitioner about what healing means (p. 148). They state “the setting in which a treatment occurs imbues the process with power and prestige while simultaneously reminding the participants of the predominant cultural beliefs regarding effective care” (p. 148). In this sense, whatever is acceptable treatment within a specific culture is valid so long as patients believe in the treatment. Thus, what happens in...
Kleinman, A. 1980. Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderland between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry. University of California Press.
When comparing the healing philosophy that underpins healing practices of the indigenous tribes it’s evident that all cultures share similar beliefs.
In the US., the therapeutic group seldom has approaches to correspond with individuals of societies so drastically unique in relation to standard American society; even a great interpreter will think that it troublesome deciphering ideas between the two separate societies' reality ideas. American specialists, not at all like Hmong shamans, regularly physically touch and cut into the collections of their patients and utilize an assortment of capable medications and meds.
Traditional healing methods were based upon traditional Aboriginal spirituality beliefs.(p18). This spiritual belief system stated that “people exist within this context as worthy creatures, but no more worthy than any other being. To live secure, healthy lives through acknowledging and respecting the spiritual as well as the physical world, because there is no difference between the two.”(p71). The whole Aboriginal culture was based around these beliefs. Everyone in the community was treated as equal with acknowledgment and respect. Therefore those who deemed to follow the cultural beliefs had no difficulty in understanding the healing practices of the people. This appreciation of equality and respect was an advantage to the Aboriginal people, especially within their healing methods.
Since the inception of this mode of research, peoples’ perception of what constitutes moral behavior towards patients and specifically harvesting cells from patients has changed. Over time, other doctors would take cells from patients without patient consent and use them for research. Coming from this, people began to think about how ethical this was, and especially if the potential for scientific or medical advances outweighs the injustices imposed by the lack of obtaining patient consent. One could argue that in the area of ethical behavior and medical advances, it might be necessary and acceptable to take cells or tissue samples without patient consent. And even though these cells and the research of these cells might not affect the patient, what advantages and disadvantages could come from obtaining or not obtaining patient consent?
Ingram, David, and Jennifer A. Parks. "Biomedical Ethics." The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Ethics. Indianapolis, IN: Alpha, 2002. N. pag. Print.
The paper looks at the physician’s code of ethics that has a direct impact on efficient and ethical health care delivery. The conduct as used by ACHE is applied here.
This book addresses one of the common characteristics, and challenges, of health care today: the need to achieve a working knowledge of as many cultures as possible in health care. The Hmong population of Merced, California addresses the collision between Western medicine and holistic healing traditions of the Hmong immigrants, which plays out a common dilemma in western medical centers: the need to integrate modern western medicinal remedies with aspects of cultural that are good for the well-being of the patient, and the belief of the patient’s ability to recuperate. What we see is a clash, or lack of integration in the example of the story thereof. Lia, a Hmong child with a rare form of epilepsy, must enter the western hospital instead of the Laotian forest. In the forest she would seek out herbs to remedy the problems that beset her, but in the west she is forced to enter the western medical hospital without access to those remedies, which provided not only physical but spiritual comfort to those members of the Hmong culture. The herbs that are supposed to fix her spirit in the forest are not available in the western hospital. The Merced County hospital system clashes with Hmong animist traditions.
Steinbock, Bonnie, Alex J. London, and John D. Arras. "The Principles Approach." Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine. Contemporary Readings in Bioethics. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013. 36-37. Print.
...healing process of the patient. Healthcare professionals should frequently ask questions in order to fully understand if certain needs are to be met because of religious practices or beliefs. For example, a fresh bed sheet can be offered to a Muslim in order for a clean space for their daily prayers (pg. 21, Singh, 2009). Certain medical decisions can be difficult to finalize since religion must be taken into consideration. Healthcare providers will come into contact with people of different faiths, nationalities and cultures. All patients should be treated with the same amount of respect and acceptance in order for their medical needs to be fairly met.
In this diverse society we are confronted everyday with so many ethical choices in provision of healthcare for individuals. It becomes very difficult to find a guideline that would include a border perspective which might include individual’s beliefs and preference across the world. Due to these controversies, the four principles in biomedical ethic which includes autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice help us understand and explain which medical practices are ethical and acceptable. These principles are not only used to protect the rights of a patient but also the physician from being violated.
Patients have the right to autonomy as a principle of ethics. The physician should not have discussed cultural differences within ear shot of patients. One never knows what cultural beliefs a patient practices. Most western physicians do not have a full understanding of traditional healing to Native American patients unless they live in an area with a large population. “Healthcare professionals must consider the patients decision to implement the treatment plan and the appropriate authorization.”
McGee, Glenn and Arthur L. Caplan. "Medical Ethics." Microsoft® Encarta® 98 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1997: Microsoft Corporation. CD-ROM.