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Effects of monetary and fiscal policy
Effects of monetary and fiscal policy
Effects of monetary and fiscal policy
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In this paper, I will identify the three monetary tools used by the Federal Reserve. In addition, I will explain how these monetary tools influence the money supply and in turn affect macroeconomic factors. Next, I will explain how money is created. Lastly, I will recommend monetary policy combinations that best achieve a balance between economic growth, low inflation, and a reasonable rate of unemployment.
Tools Used by the Federal Reserve to Control the Money Supply
The three monetary tools used by the Federal Reserve to alter the reserves of commercial banks are: Open-market operations, reserve ratio, and the discount rate (McConnell-Brue, 2004, chpt. 15). The most powerful and flexible tool of the Federal Reserve is Open-market operations. Open-market operations occurs when the buying of government bonds from, or the selling of government bonds to, commercial banks and the general public (McConnell-Brue, 2004, chpt. 15).
The Federal Reserve can also influence the ability for commercial banks to lend by manipulating the reserve ratio. The reserve ratio is the amount the Federal Reserve is requiring the banks to keep in their reserve. By increasing or decreasing the reserve ratio, this determines if a bank has more or less money to lend (The Federal Reserve, 2007).
In the event that a main bank would have unexpected or immediate needs for additional funds, the Federal Reserve can make short-term loans (McConnell-Brue, 2004, chpt. 15). The discount rate is the rate of interest that the Federal Reserve charges to borrow money (The Federal Reserve, 2007).
Tools Used to Influence the Money Supply and Affect Macroeconomic Factors
When the Federal Reserve buys securities in the open market, commercial banks’ reserves are increased. This results in banks lending out their excess reserves which in turn will increase the supply of money. On the other hand, when the Federal Reserve sells securities in the open market to commercial banks or to the public, bank reserves will be reduced and thus the nation’s money supply will decline (McConnell-Brue, 2004, chpt. 15).
“The Fed can also manipulate the reserve ratio in order to influence the ability of commercial banks to lend” (McConnell-Brue, 2004, chpt. 15). If the Federal Reserve increases the reserve ratio, then this would increase the amount of required reserves a bank must keep on hand (McConnell-Brue, 2004, chpt. 15).
-2. The background of the financial crisis.—what kind of monetary policy the federal reserve made?
Monetary Policy is another policy used in Keynesianism which is a list of protocols designed to regulate the economy by setting the amount of money that is in circulation and controlled interest levels. The Federal Reserve system, also known as the central banking system in the U.S., which holds control of this policy. Monetary policy has three tools used by the Federal Reserve to enforce this policy. Reserve Requirement is the first tool that determines the lowest amount of money a bank must possess and is not able to lend out. The second way to enforce monetary policy is by using the discount rate or the interest rate a bank will charge.
the business needs to make up the costs and the only way to do this is
The Federal Reserve and Macroeconomic Factors Introduction The Federal Reserve controls the economy of the United States through a variety of tools. They use these tools to shape the monetary policy of the United States in order to promote economic growth and reduce the rate of inflation and the unemployment rate. By adjusting these tools, the Fed is able to control the amount of money in the supply. By controlling the amount of money, the Fed can affect the macro-economic indicators and steer the economy away from runaway inflation or a recession.
Over the past few years we have realized the impact that the Federal Government has on our economy, yet we never knew enough about the subject to understand why. While taking this Economics course it has brought so many things to our attention, especially since we see inflation, gas prices, unemployment and interest rates on the rise. It has given us a better understanding of the effect of the Government on the economy, the stock market, the interest rates, etc. Since the Federal Government has such a control over our Economy, we decided to tackle the subject of the Federal Reserve System and try to get a better understanding of the history, the structure, and the monetary policy of the power that it holds.
Major banks are cutting back on some of their legally permitted operations, such as- market making, and that has led to liquidity issues in the bond markets. Proprietary trading could become unregulated if more banking activities continue moving towards the shadow banking system. This would essentially defeat one of the main purposes of Volcker Rule. [d] The third major unintended consequence has been the degree by which the Federal Reserve has become the main regulator of the finance industry. In order to discourage future bailouts similar to the ones during the financial crisis, the Dodd-Frank Act limited the Fed’s emergency powers. However the liquidity and capital standards now imposed by Fed has purportedly become one of the most important regulatory developments of the Dodd-Frank Act.
By definition, the federal funds rate is the interest rate at which private depository institution (mostly banks) lend balances (federal funds) at the Federal Reserve to other depository institutions, usually overnight. Changing the target rate is one form of open market operations that the Chairman of the Federal Reserve uses to regulate the supply of money in the United States in the U.S economy. Short-term interest rates were relatively stable during the first half of the funds’ fiscal year. Toward the middle of the second half, however, short-term rates started to move down a little bit when concerns about the strength of the housing and credit market and the current economy led the Federal Reserve to reduce short-term rates. The Federal Reserve cut the federal funds rate by 25 basis points (0.25%) and pumped $41 billion of short-term reserves into the markets. On the daily basis, most businesses operate regardless of the Federal rate and completely independent of it. Coca-cola sells Coke by the truckload regardless of the trickle-down effect of the Federal Funds Rare. In addition, it generated gobs of excess cash that allowed it to service virtually and interest rate the banks threw at it. The Coca-cola company reports that the earnings per share of $1.77 for the year, versus $1.23 in the prior year. In addition, cash from operations has increased 15% to 5.5 billion. In addition, the fourth quarter earnings per share of $0.38 and the worldwide unit case volume growth of 3% in the fourth quarter and 4% for the full year. Opinions on if the Federal Reserve will raise interest rates in the future abound, with conventional wisdom siding with a rate increase. However, the decision probably will not affect what happens to stock prices as much as it would with news of corporate earnings surprises. With the benchmark lending rate at 1.5%, rates are still quite low – past economic recoveries have seen rates at 3% or higher at this stage.
In the study of macroeconomics there are several sub factors that affect the economy either favorably or adversely. One dynamic of macroeconomics is monetary policy. Monetary policy consists of deliberate changes in the money supply to influence interest rates and thus the level of spending in the economy. “The goal of a monetary policy is to achieve and maintain price level stability, full employment and economic growth.” (McConnell & Brue, 2004).
The idea of the money growth rule is contingent upon the relationship between the money supply and inflation. Therefore, the question arises whether there even is a relationship between money supply and inflation. As stated earlier, one can see a relation between money and inflation. Presented above is series data that displays this relationship between money supply and the inflation rate over the previous decades. The problem is that there are fluctuations within the data and therefore a broader definition of the money supply must be utilized. Based on the research of Dr. Terry J. Fitzgerald, an economist at the Cleveland Federal Reserve Bank, if one defines money supply as M2, when examining the data over a multiple year progression, a pattern begins to present itself. Further, by graphing the difference between adjusted money growth and inflation, the link becomes evident. These graphs show the weight that changes to the money supply can have upon an economy’s inflation rate.
The term Monetary policy refers to the method through which a country’s monetary authority, such as the Federal Reserve or the Bank of England control money supply for the aim of promoting economic stability and growth and is primarily achieved by the targeting of various interest rates. Monetary policy may be either contractionary or expansionary whereby a contractionary policy reduces the money supply, reduces the rate at which money is supplied or sets about an increase in interest rates. Expansionary policies on the other hand increase the supply of money or lower the interest rates. Interest rates may also be referred to as tight if their aim is to reduce inflation; neutral, if their aim is neither inflation reduction nor growth stimulation; or, accommodative, if aimed at stimulating growth. Monetary policies have a great impact on the economic stability of a country and if not well formulated, may lead to economic calamities (Reinhart & Rogoff, 2013). The current monetary policy of the United States Federal Reserve while being accommodative and expansionary so as to stimulate growth after the 2008 recession, will lead to an economic pitfall if maintained in its current state. This paper will examine this current policy, its strengths and weaknesses as well as recommendations that will ensure economic stability.
Another problem prior to the establishment of the Federal Reserve System was the inelasticity of bank credit and the supply of money. Small banks placed their excess reserves in large central reserve banks. Whenever a bank’s depositors wanted their funds, the smaller banks would be covered by the central banks. The system worked well during normal conditions. Some banks would draw down on their reserves as other banks would be building up their reserves. In times of excessive demand, however, the problem became quite serious. When the public wanted large amounts of currency, the
1. Which of the monetary tools available to the Federal Reserve is most often used? Why?
The Federal Reserve use several tools like discount rate, federal funds rate, required reserve ratio and open market operations to control the money supply. In the simulation, the effect of controlling the money supply on the economy was presented. Typically, releasing money into the system results in higher Real GDP and lower unemployment. On the other hand, it also raises inflation.
The macroeconomic environment is a dynamic environment, which could not remain unchanged (Gajewsky 2015). There are many factors influence the global macroeconomic environment, such as interest rate, exchange rate, GDP,aggregate demand, monetary policy and other macroeconomic variable (Oxelheim and Wihlborg 2008). These factors are closely associated with commodity price.
In this write up the focus is mainly on e-business. It consists of critical discussion and analysis of the impact of adopting e-business orientation. It also contains relevant information on the current state of e-business market.