Research over the last several decades has shown that intergroup contact can be an effective strategy to reduce discrimination. In 1954, Allport outlined four conditions for optimal contact; equal status in the situation, common goals, cooperation, and institutional support. Common goals and cooperation were later combined as interdependence by Sherif. Although these four factors may lead to optimal outcomes, depending on the situation, positive outcomes can be achieved even if all four factors are not satisfied. Moreover, the historical nature of the relationship between target groups defines which of the conditions will be the most important. If the historical nature of the relationship has been quite tense (such as groups that have overt histories of intergroup violence) then institutional support is the most important factor. However, for groups that have had less tense relations, interdependence is the most important factor in achieving a positive outcome. In addition, to Allport’s four conditions, contact over a long duration is also needed to achieve the best intergroup outcomes. If groups have had tense relations, institutional support is a necessary condition for advantageous intergroup contact. Because beneficial intergroup outcomes are only achieved through positive interactions, contact that causes anxiety or leads to physical and emotional violence must be avoided. Since it is likely for anxiety or violence to arise in natural contact situations between two groups that have had tense relations, institutional support may help restructure the interaction in a positive way. Institutions (laws, culture, officials, etc.) that are acknowledged by both groups can shift social norms to make contact between groups seem accep... ... middle of paper ... ...nce that may deviate from social norms, it can lead to anxiety. Due to anxiety, the first interactions between members from different groups may not be able to lead to a positive outcome. However, if contact is repeated multiple times it will allow individuals to establish a rapport (and potentially a friendship). As this happens, individuals become more accepting of the interaction and see a decrease in their anxiety over time. Therefore if contact is over a longer time span, the likelihood of a positive outcome increases. Depending on the situation, Allport’s four conditions for optimal contact may not all be necessary; for groups with a history of tense relations institutional support is needed, for groups with less tense relations interdependence is needed. Additionally, in order to achieve the best outcome, positive contact must occur over a long time period.
Race and ethnicity is a main factor in the way we identify others and ourselves. The real question here is does race/ethnicity still matter in the U.S.? For some groups race is not a factor that affects them greatly and for others it is a constant occurrence in their mind. But how do people of mix race reacts to this concept, do they feel greatly affected by their race? This is the question we will answer throughout the paper. I will first examine the battle of interracial relationship throughout history and explain how the history greatly explains the importance of being multiracial today. This includes the backlash and cruelty towards interracial couple and their multiracial children. Being part of a multiracial group still contains its impact in today’s society; therefore race still remaining to matter to this group in the U.S. People who place themselves in this category are constantly conflicted with more than one cultural backgrounds and often have difficulty to be accepted.
...g (Gilliam). A lack of leadership, resources, and conflicting interests has challenged interethnic group success in many areas throughout the country (Barker 361). The growing number of racial minorities experiencing different historical backgrounds and agendas throughout the United States along with previous white and nonwhite supporters who feel left out by the civil rights movement allow for tremendous challenges in creating interethnic coalitions (Gilliam).
Across the nation, millions of Americans of all races turn on the television or open a newspaper and are bombarded with images of well dressed, articulate, attractive black people advertising different products and representing respected companies. The population of black professionals in all arenas of work has risen to the point where seeing a black physician, attorney, or a college professor are becoming more a common sight. More and more black people are holding positions of respect and authority throughout America today, such as Barack Obama, Colin Powell, Condelezza Rice and many other prominent black executives. As a result of their apparent success, these black people are seen as role models for many Americans, despite their race. However, these groups of black people are exceptions to the rule and consist of only a tiny fraction of all black Americans. These black people in turn actually help to reinforce the inequality of black Americans by allowing Americans of other races to focus on their success. A common thought is, "They made it, why can't you do the same?" The direct and truthful answer to that question is Racism.
With this understanding it can be acknowledged that one can be an oppressor at one point in time but be oppressed at another. These roles are constantly changing based on a variety of factors. Integrative anti-racism allows a better understanding these social oppressions. The author argues that in order for oppression to be vitally explored, the factors that create oppression must be realized. Oppression gives material advantage to the oppressor. "All social relations have material
...and ethnic minorities must assimilate into that society (Andersen and Taylor, 2013). Symbolic interactionism looks at two issues in relation to race and ethnicity. They first look at the role of social interaction and how it reduces racial and ethnic hostility. Second, they look at how race and ethnicity are socially constructed. Finally, conflict theorists present the argument that class-based conflict is an inherent and fundamental part of society (Giddens, 1996). So, the argument would be that racial and ethnic conflict is tied to class conflict and that in order to reduce racial and ethnic conflict, class conflict must first be reduced. For the sake of this study and argument, I will continue with a focus on the conflict and functionalist theorists perspectives because I feel they provide the most modern insightful outlooks into this present form of inequality.
“Racism is man's gravest threat to man - the maximum of hatred for a minimum of reason,” —Abraham Joshua Heschel. Racism has plagued society since the beginning of time, and as Heschel explained it is one of mankind’s greatest downfalls. As social animals; humans have a natural desire to relate to each other and group off. Collaborating with others has many benefits such as, starting a family or getting through natural disasters but; often times this desire to connect has led to superiority complexes and severe racism. History shows that the failure to embrace differences can lead to horrific wars and unrest. An example of a time when a group of common people used racism to connect is America’s Ku Klux Klan. Although the Ku Klux Klan has become less of an issue over the years, it is still existent and has the potential to expand.
The most commonly known type of racism, interpersonal racism, finds its way into many aspects of our social structure and our society. Interpersonal racism can be defined as the racial domination that exists in every day life and is “found in...
Bobo, L. (1999). microfoundations of a sociological approach to racism and race relations. Prejudice as group position, J. Soc. Issues 55:445–72.
More focus into the ethnic groups is just another racial grouping on a different perspective. The increased competition for ethnic identity among ethnic groups is posing as a rediscovery of racial groups, in which ethnic groups are termed as majority or minority groups. However, the shift to ethnic group has shaped some characteristics of individuals that were previously coined in social differentiation according to race. One of the noticeable individual features that have been shaped is the aspect of mutual and collective interests, in which every member strives to protect common interests of the group e.g. human rights. I believe that racial and ethnic groups are things that will continue to exist from our past historical experiences. We can together wipe out the problem of discrimination and injustices based on ethnicity and racial differences, if we all strive towards cherishing social consciousness for one another as a one human race and freeing ourselves from the trappings of our racial and ethnic
Institutional racism is defined in the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) as “the manifestation of racism in social systems and institutions. It is the social, economic, educational, and political forces or policies that operate to foster discriminatory outcomes. It is the combination of policies, practices, or procedures embedded in bureaucratic structure that systematically lead to unequal outcomes for groups of people”(2007). In other words, policy and practices intentionally or unintentionally favor one group or put a racial group at a
The United States used racial formation and relied on segregation that was essentially applied to all of their social structures and culture. As we can see, race and the process of racial formation have important political and economic implications. Racial formation concept seeks to connect and give meaning to how race is shaped by social structure and how certain racial categories are given meaning our lives or what they say as “common sense” Omi and Winant seek to further explain their theory through racial
I was aware of these oppressions and have often times struggled with what I can do individually to work towards alleviating these oppressions. The Next Steps portion of the chapter on racism really outlined methods of actions that could be applied to all forms of oppression. One method entitled “FLEXing Cross- cultural Communications,” outlines productive communication, depersonalization, and open- mindedness when it comes to understanding and practicing competency. This model serves as a tool to motivate action to those form other cultures in ways that in the end everyone can
One of the reasons racism may occur is due to the increased competition between local races of a country and immigrated races from another country. For example, most whites held negative attitudes toward school districts' attempts to integrate schools via school bussing in the 1970s (Bobo 1983). This was due to contempt towards racial integration due to a perception of blacks as a danger to valued lifestyles, goals, and resources. This can be explained by Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT), proposed by Campbell (1965), who thought that social intergroup interactions were not adequate enough, and hence proposing the idea of RCT. RCT looks at conflicts and competition between groups of people and why they occur, rather than looking solely at social interaction. This theory suggests that conflicts arise due to a lack of understanding of “out-groups”.
According to this theory, in relation to Whites and Blacks, AAPIs have been racially triangulated. AAPI’s racial position on this social hierarchy occurs through two linked, simultaneous processes. “Relative valorization” is the first process, which is the manner in which a dominant group (Whites) restrains a lower group (AAPIs) relative to another lower group (Blacks). Whites are able to restrain the lower groups through both racial and cultural grounds in order to remain superior. The second process in racial triangulation is “civic ostracism” which is the process in which the dominant group (Whites) label an inferior group (Blacks) as foreign
Prejudice is an inexcusable attitude (usually harmful) towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group. Victims of prejudice may have difficulty focusing on tasks and making clear decisions and this effect can linger after the incident. Psychotherapy may be helpful in treating the negative mental effects of someone who has been the victim of prejudice. Psychotherapy may also be beneficial for someone who has prejudged or discriminated against another.