In daily life, memory is used all the time. When we go to buy things, we would remember the list of items what we are going to buy. At school, we would also need to have revision in order to remember the materials for examination. Or even, when we meet friends, we would also need to recall their names. Thus it is important to know and understand how we remember such things so that we can effectively recall them when necessary. Obviously, we do not need to remember the exact position or order of things in daily life. We would have our own pattern for remember and retrieve information (Ashcraft, 2010). This is named as free recall, which items recalled in any order (Francis, Neath, MacKewn and Goldthwaite, 2004). However, many researchers found that the probability of recalling items (such as words, letters, or numbers) does in fact depend on the items position in a list. The most striking finding is that words at the beginning and end of the list are often easier to recall than those words in the middle of the list. Thus, when the results of a free recall experiment are plotted on a graph; a u-shaped serial position curve can be obtained. This is often referred to as the serial position effect that is affecting our memory (Smith, n.d.).
In the early primacy portion of the serial position effect, there was a direct positive relationship between the frequency of rehearsal and the probability of recall. That is to say, the primacy effect was entirely dependent on rehearsal. The early items can be rehearsed more, and thus recalled better. The recency effect, was viewed as recall from short-term memory, which is why they were recalled so well even if being rehearsed so little (Ashcraft, 2010). The improved recall for the words at the ...
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...able conditions; while people will usually prefer options presented earlier for undesirable conditions (Epley, 2009). A patient of H. M. case study shown the multi-store model. H.M. who was unable to make new long term memories but whose short-term memories remain unaffected. It shows that there are separate long-term and short-term stores (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).
Serial recall in forward order shows a large primacy effect and relatively small recency. Backward serial recall shows larger, recency and smaller primacy than recall in forward order (Oberauer, 2003). TV commercials also demonstrate the serial position effect. Audiences will remember better the first few ads and last few ads better, mostly forget the commercials at the middle. This will not be true only if the commercials at the middle are distinctive, that can isolate from the others (Terry, 2005).
Over the years, memory have been researched and debated, however there are two theories that have explained extensively and are highly recognised by psychologist in the cognitive field of psychology and scientist alike, on how we process experiences and turn them into memories. These theories include the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) Multi-store Model of Memory and Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Phonological Loop Model of Memory. This essay aims to compare, contrast and evaluate these models of memory, with supporting evidence and empirical research.
In the experimental group the middle four average scores were not significantly different (M = 0.70, SD = 0.04) from the last four average scores (M = 0.50, SD = 0.00), t(4) = 2.06, p < ns . In the control group, the middle four average scores were also not significantly different (M = 0.68, SD = 0.02) from the last four average scores (M = 0.56 , SD = 0.00), t(4) = 1.89, p < ns.The serial position curve of recall of the warned group and the control group showed a similar pattern as to the one found in previous studies on the same topic. Both groups were able to recall about 90% of the words in the beginning of the list and the end of the list (See Figure 1). The warned group had slightly more false memories, but the difference was not at all significant (see Figure 2). The control group recalled more critical and studied words than the warned group (see Table
Serial position effects have been reviewed extensively in cognitive psychology research (Cowan et al, 2002). When people are shown a list of items, they are more liable to recollect the items presented either at the commencement of the list or at the cessation. This occurrence was termed the primacy and recency effects (Stewart et al., 2004). Serial position effects can alter a consumer’s recollection which in turn can alter their behavior when purchasing items. Although this is true, past research has not investigated or used primacy and recency effects for marketing purposes. In other words, when the consumer is presented with different options, which one will the consumers recollect: the first commercial pod, the last one, or the middle one? Only a few researchers have attempted to investigate the primacy and recency effects for television commercials, either in a naturalistic or laboratory situation (e.g., Peiters and Bijmolt, 1997 and Bijmolt, 1997; Zhao, 1997; Newell and Henderson, 1998; Newell and Wu, 2003; Terry, 2005). In previous research, serial position effects have only been investigated at the micro level. In other words, the serial position of each commercial within each commercial pod was analyzed¸this is the micro-level test. Another analysis test was concluded at the macro level. This test took into consideration the serial position effect of each commercial pod within the entire 2006 Super Bowl game broadcast; this was the macro level test. For the purpose of this critique, I will stress the macro-level test.
Memory can be defined as the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organising, altering and retrieving information (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Many a time one is able to remember something, example how to drive a car, yet they are unable to remember a mathematical formula for an examination. People vary in their ability to remember certain things, and research conducted has proven that even infants differ in their memory abilities (Fagan & Singer, 1963). It was discovered by psychologists that memory is not static, but rather it is influenced by ones internal factors and situational happenings to a large effect (Huffman, Vernoy & Vernoy, 1997). This essay will attempt to discover which method of study is most suitable, by listing and explaining various memory strategies, as well as indicating how each method will improve memory efficiency. The process of memory is made up of three operations. The first being Encoding, this is the conversion of information into a form which enables it to be retained in memory (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). The second operation is called Storage, this is the keeping of information until it is later needed. The third and final operation is known as Retrieval, and this is the recovering of information from Storage (Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus & Wagenaar, 2009). These formerly mentioned operations each represent a stage in the process of memory (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012).
Mulligan, N. W., & Picklesimer, M. (2012). Levels of processing and the cue-dependent nature of recollection. Journal of Memory and Language, 66(1), 79-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2011.10.001
The second stage of memory processing is storage. Aronson et al. (2013) defines storage as the process by which people store the information they just acquired. Unfortunately, memories are affected by incoming information through alteration or reconstruction. This phenomenon is referred to as recon...
The modal model of memory is one of the most basic models that describes memory today. It involves the three stages named sensory memory, short-term memory, and Long-term memory and how each stage transfers information from one to another (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2012). Healy and McNamara (1996) explained how the original modal model of memory, developed in 1890, consisted of only the primary and secondary memory. The primary memory was defined as, “…that which is held momentarily in consciousness…” and the secondary memory was defined to be, “…unconscious but permanent [memory].” As time progressed, the primary memory was then referred to as “short-term memory” while the secondary memory started to be called “Long-term memory”. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin added what is now called “sensory memory” to the list, which consists of sensory registers for sight, sound and even touch. This new modal model of memory that is currently used also explains the transitions between short and Long-term memory.
In the field of cognitive neuroscience a memory study usually involves a combination of behavioral tasks and a machine that permits t...
Short-term memory (STM) is defined by Revlin as the system that facilitates the successful performance of "moment-to-moment" activities, such as retaining mental shopping lists and remembering phone numbers (119). As implied by its name, STM describes the compartment of the human mind that can only hold so much information—about 7 unrelated items—for approximately 18 seconds at a time (Revlin 120-125). Baddeleyrefers to the mechanical component of STM that is not concerned with storage as "working mem...
In our daily lives, we constantly try to store and retrieve information from our memory. Sometimes the retrieval process is quite simple, while other times it seems to be almost impossible. An experiment was done to investigate the effect of list position on free recall. The serial position effect refers to the U-shaped pattern presentation on a free recall task. The accuracy of item recall depends on the order that the stimulus is presented. The serial position curve is an example of how the recency and primacy effect appears to have influence on recall. Primacy effect results from initial observations and it is believed that the first few items of the list is remembered the second best. The recency effect results from the final observations and it is believed that these are the items that are recalled the best. The regency and primacy effect lends support to the interference theory. This theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of interfering information with the recall information. There are two aspects to this theory- retroactive interference and proactive interference. Retroactive interference occurs when a participant has difficulty recalling old information due to the interference of newly learned information. The primacy effect is subjected to the retroactive interference. In contrast, proactive interference occurs when a participant has difficulty learning new information due to the already learned information. The recency effect is subjected proactive interference.
A mental representation is usually required for the effect to occur (Salamoura & Williams, 2006). The participant usually tries to activate his or her semantic memory during the production process and recollect semantic features. Moreover, multiple regions of the brain are usually responsible for various mnemonic aspects closely related to the appearance of the generation effect (Salamoura & Williams, 2006). Therefore, these elements act as retrieval aid and cues in recalling the targeted item.
Long-term memory is comprised of three types of retrieval: cued recall, free recall, and serial recall. Recall is the capacity to reiterate stored information. Cued recall involves clues to help remember the needed information. Serial recall is retrieving information and repeating it in a specific order. F...
.... Serial Position Effect for Repeated Free Recall: Negative Recency or Positive Primacy? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 96(1), 10-16. doi:10.1037/h0033479
This essay will firstly briefly describe the theories and important facts about the original multi-store model of memory (MSM) and the working memory model (WMM).
Learning to tie shoes and ride a bike requires the encoding, storing, and retrieving of past observations of the procedure. With a lot of practice, children master these skills so well that they are able to remember them the rest of their lives. Memory is the storing of information over time. It is one of the most important concepts in learning; if things are not remembered, no learning can take place. As a process, memory refers to the "dynamic mechanism associated with the retention and retrieval of information about past experiences" (Sternberg 260). We use our memory about the past to help us understand the present. The study or memory in psychology is used in different ways, as well as there are many different ways to study how memory works in humans. In psychology there are many tasks used to measure memory, and different types of memory storages that human's use, such as sensory storing, or short term storing. There are also a lot of techniques that humans use to improve their memory, which they can use to learn, such as mnemonic devices. All these things can be classified as important issues in the study of human memory and ways of learning.