In 2003, the United States began accepting for non-forced migration the largest 'single' group of African refugees to date. Members of this group, comprised of over 13,500 'Somali Bantu' refugees, have since been resettled in various parts of the United States. Although this population of minority Somali nationals has been labeled, for the purposes of humanitarian response, under the single ethnonym 'Somali Bantu', it is misleading in that it implies a cohesive ethnic identity for a group that is diverse in number of ways. Held in common, however, is a history of persecution and discrimination that is the reason for the creation of the ethnonym by western humanitarian aid workers, as well as a main driver behind its evolution as an identity. …show more content…
But with two main 'Somali Bantu' groups now in existence, one in Somalia and one in diaspora, the identity may take two separate trajectories over the next few decades, as the transition from externally-imposed ethnonym to internalized ethnic identity is a process of generations. This paper will trace a brief history of 'Somali Bantu' persecution and discuss the early evolution of the 'Somali Bantu' ethnonym, before focusing specifically on its future for the diaspora settled in the U.S.. For those resettled in the United States, 'Somali Bantu' may have lasting meaning, or it may fade away as younger generations take on new identities or give old ones increased significance. During the refugee experience in Kenyan camps, the appropriation of the identity 'Somali Bantu' was strongly supported both by the realization of a shared history of persecution and by political necessity, but in the post-resettlement experience in the United States identity formation faces a number of challenges which may halt its development in its …show more content…
The principal shared traits are an agricultural livelihood and some generally similar physical features. As sedentary farmers, the economic lifestyles of Somali Bantu were a contrast to the idealized pastoralist lifestyles of much of the ethnic Somali majority, but the professed physical differences between ethnic and non-ethnic Somalis are arguably the most entrenched. These 'Negroid' traits include darker skin and broader facial features than ethnic Somalis, and 'kinky' hair. The difference between ethnic and non-ethnic Somalis is often reduced to 'kinky' or 'hard' hair, called jareer in Somali, and 'soft' hair, called jilec. While there are, as with any physical feature, numerous degrees of jareer hair, any amount of 'hardness' is enough to associate the individual in question with a slave ancestry. As Catherine Besteman explains, "...the [Bantu] category is equated with 'African'—and thus slave—ancestry, as distinguished from the (mythical) 'Arabic' ancestry of [ethnic, nomadic] Somalis." Thus the riverine valleys of southern Somalia, where the 'Somali Bantu' are concentrated, became a racialized space, one which Bantu peoples had chosen, but which became the means of segregating them from the
-1990’s: people that live near the ravine and southeast areas of Somalia are descendants of Africans once enslaved by the Somalis
In the essay, I answer the question “What are some of the inherent cultural barriers and challenges that the refugees faced when coming to Clarkston? Are these challenges unique to this story or do they reflect the broader concerns and anxieties about immigration in America?” with supporting evidence from the book and outside sources.
Ethnic Identity and Culture.’ New Tribalisms: The Resurgence of Race and Ethnicity. New York University Press. 1998
Migrations have taken place by slaves and by free people of sub-Saharan Africa for over seventy thousand years, beginning with the tropical areas of the Old World and followed by Eurasia and the Americas. These migrations, or Diasporas, began with religious voyages and cultural exchanges and evolved to the slave trade and the deportation of black men, women and children to new colonies as workers and servants. Long before the Atlantic slave trade grew, merchants from Greece and the Roman Empire traveled to the East African coast. Patrick Manning points out in, African Diaspora: A History Through Culture, that migrants came from southern Arabia to Eretria and Ethiopia in the first millennium BCE (Manning 36). As time went on, contacts grew with other regions of Africa and trade developed with Asia and Europe. This resulted in further migrations of black Africans as both slaves and free men. The Africans brought with them customs, music food preparation techniques and minerals. For example, the discovery of copper in Central Africa brought about a substantial trans-Saharan trade and more exchange of culture and migrations. As more Africans migrated to various parts of the world, they carried with them their culture and learned new techniques and ways of life. Whether they migrated as slaves or as free men, the Africans influenced their new lands and African identity was influenced forever. This paper will look at the effects of these migrations on African identity throughout the Diaspora. It will examine migration patterns, issues of race, racial hierarchy and culture.
24 Jan. 2001. Mamiya, Lawrence H., and Charles Eric Lincoln. “Nation of Islam.” Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. 2nd Ed.
According to the 1951 Refugee Convention, refugee is a term applied to anyone who is outside his/her own country and cannot return due to the fear of being persecuted on the basis of race, religion, nationality, membership of a group or political opinion. Many “refugees” that the media and the general public refer to today are known as internally displaced persons, which are people forced to flee their homes to avoid things such as armed conflict, generalized violations of human rights or natural and non-natural disasters. These two groups are distinctly different but fall ...
Those who do not fear persecution are not considered in this definition, for instance, people escaping from natural disasters, because they do not have a fear of persecution. In addition, even though the individuals do face persecution, they are not considered as refugees if they are not ‘on the basis of’ of one of the protected grounds. Even those who face persecution on the basis of a protected ground, they cannot be declared as refugees because they are not outside their country of citizenship. The most controversial notion is that those who have been driven from their homes but who have not crossed international borders, so-called ‘Internally Displaced Persons’ (IDPs), are not in the definition of refugee, even though they have all the characteristics of a refugee except that they have not crossed an international border. The UNHCR has played their part in helping such persons in the last thirty or so years, but has still not considered them as refugees which makes them hard to have full benefits of what refugees should get. Hence, Lister aims to portray that these restrictions have a rational
While the concept of an “African diaspora,” or African dispersion, has been gaining popularity over the years, there is not a comprehensive definition of the term, which is the main argument of “Defining and Studying the Modern African Diaspora.” Palmer organizes the major African diasporas into two categories based on their time and characteristics. Starting 100,000 years ago and concluding in the 19th century, the pre-modern diasporas differed from the modern diasporas in the existence or “racial” oppression and resistance.2 Palmer writes, “The modern African diaspora, at its core, consists of the millions of peoples of African descent living in various societies who are united by a past
The linguistic differences, ethnic variances, and cultural distinctions between tribes (even those in close proximity) can be stark. This doesn’t excuse tribal and ethnic tension, but it does help explain it. But not in Somalia. Even with its small, disadvantaged minority groups Somalia is one of the most homogenous places in Africa. To outsiders the differences between the five major clans are seemingly inconsequential; they share a common Samaal heritage and all speak various dialects of the same Cushitic language. It is not ethnic or tribal tension that is the crux in Somalia—it is the clan. This means blood, honor, and justice—encompassed in the Somali word heer. In addition to precise rules of blood compensation (in the event of a man’s murder his clan is owed one hundred camels, while a woman’s life is only worth fifty camels), the clan system also accounts for a lot of old-fashioned nepotism—business, military, and government positions are all doled out via the clan. Many Somalis are thankful for the clan system. In the absence of a functioning government, heer is at least some kind of
The first issue it list is the prevalence of clan allegiance over allegiance to the government. Many authors state that because there is no national government that can command the allegiance of its citizens, the people of Somalia have looked to clans as a form of government. The history
In the Africa, lies the country Somalia, which is located on east coast of the continent. Its capital, Mogadishu, however has inconveniently brought its own problems, from colonization to politics, disagreements arise, causing tension throughout the country. Somalia’s historical background and culture ultimately lead to the war in its capital, it lead to the War of Mogadishu.
For the past two decades, Somalia has been living in a total state of anarchy, characterized by lawlessness and overall chaos. In the late 19th century, during the “Scramble for Africa”, Great Britain and Italy took over Somalia. However, Somalia began to resist both the British and the Italian governments, which led to the country being in a state of rebellion for decades. Finally, in 1960 Somalia won its independence, but it did not last. In 1969, Mohamed Siad Barre came into power, his actions caused many Somalis to rebel which led to him being overthrown.
3. Some of the challenges that Somali faced after they arrive in the U.S is she had to deal with a big difference between the U.S. and her country. In the U.S there are laws, but in her country it was lawless. The church responded with the Charitable Works by the committee oversees and provides guidance to Migration and Refugee Services,
Zolberg, Aristide R., Astri Suhrke, and Sergio Aguayo. Escape From Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Sikhism suits the needs of modern life since it is open to everyone who is willing to embrace its practices and doctrines. Sikhism, one of the most scientific and modern religions in the world, is the fifth largest religion. One distinctive characteristic of the Sikh religious practice in comparison to other faiths is the vibrant Sikh identity, which is culturally, spiritually, and visually, able to be noticeable within the crowd. Sikhism has become principally and identifiably a way of appearance, which is the decisive threshold between being a “Sikh” or not, between being someone and being anyone. A Sikh’s identity is known as the “Khalsa”, which means the “community of the pure” (Takhar, 2005). The Khalsa is an example of a transnational religious community, which its sole purpose was to institute a military charge of “saint soldiers.” The Khalsa refers to the baptized Sikhs, who have taken “amrit paul” (Nesbitt, 2002). The Khalsa was responsible for both protection and administration of the community. According to Sikhism, a Sikh should be a scholar, saint, and soldier for God, who must live by an example as the Guru Granth Sahib outlines. Sikhs have their own real identity, which is vividly growing substantially since it possesses its separate religion, institutions, martial traditions, history, and territory. The Khalsa Sikhs could be recognized by the given five articles of Sikhism, the Five Ks (McLeod, 2008). However, how is it possible that a turbaned and bearded portrait of a Sikh comes to embody a religion whose antipathy to the worship of a sacred idol image is the character of its difference from Hinduism? This research paper, argues that the theoretical accounts of the role of the outer appearance relative to the rel...