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Pharmacology neurotransmitters
Pharmacology neurotransmitters
Functions and dysfunctions of neurotransmitters
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1. List a number of neurotransmitters and describe the part of the nervous system where each is found and the types(s) of behavior each influences. (Chapter 3)
A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is stored in the axon terminal buttons, and when the neuron fires it is released into the synapse where it interacts with the receptor. There are numerous neurotransmitters in the human nervous system. They control many different behaviors that we experience. The first neurotransmitter that scientists discovered was acetylcholine. Acetylcholine and dopamine are both involved in motor movements, memory, and learning. Acetylcholine is found in many different parts of the nervous system such as the autonomic, central, and peripheral nervous systems while dopamine is mostly found in the brain. When acetylcholine is released from motor neurons, it goes to the muscle fibers which make the muscles to contract. Science has linked acetylcholine to Alzheimer’s disease. Dopamine is also involved in motor movement, memory, and learning. Even though acetylcholine and dopamine are involved in the same processes they trigger different parts of the behavior. Dopamine initiates motor movement while acetylcholine causes the contraction. Lack of dopamine causes Parkinson’s disease which is a disease that causes tremors and uncontrolled movement.
Another neurotransmitter is serotonin; it is involved in the control of the cycle of sleeping and waking, mood, and appetite. Serotonin is found in the spinal cord and brain. When the body experiences deficiencies, sleep disorders, aggression, and depression can occur. Norepinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and is spread through the central and peripheral nervous systems. This neurotran...
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...233). Pavlovian conditioning has four parts: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Each of the four parts is associated to one another. The unconditioned stimulus automatically causes the unconditioned response. The conditioned stimulus after being trained can trigger the conditioned response.
In operant conditioning, there is an association between an individual’s behavior and its consequence. A consequence can either be reinforcement or punishment (233). Positive and negative reinforcements will increase the behavior. When an individual is reinforced, they will continue to repeat the behavior to receive the reinforcement again. Punishment, on the other hand, will decrease the behavior. If an individual is punished after a particular behavior, they will behave that way less often to avoid the punishment.
If a behavior is desirable, consequences called reinforcers are used to encourage the behavior in the future, via the process of reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive (presenting reinforcing stimulus) or negative (removing a negative stimulus). However, if a behavior is undesired, a negative consequence can be used to discourage the behavior, through the process of either positive or negative punishment. In positive punishment, a negative consequence is presented after the undesired behavior occurs. When negative punishment it used the idea is the same “to discourage future display of undesired behavior,” but instead of presenting a negative stimulus, a desired stimulus is removed following the behavior.
Briefly explain the process of neurotransmission. Neurotransmission starts with the neuron, the most important part of the central nervous system. A neuron contains a cell body, axon, and dendrites. When a neuron receives an electrical impulse, the impulse travels away from the cell body down the axon. The axon breaks off into axon terminals. At the axon terminals, the electrical impulse creates a neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter is released into the synapse, a space between two neurons. If the neurotransmitter tries to stimulate a response of another neuron, it is an excitatory neurotransmitter. If the neurotransmitter does not stimulate a response of another neuron it is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. If a response is generated, the second neuron or postsynaptic neuron will receive an action potential at the site of the dendrite and the communication process will continue on. If a response is not generated, neurotransmitters left in the synapse will be absorbed by the first neuron or presynaptic neuron, a process known as reuptake. Neurotransmitters control our body functions, emotions, and
Operant conditioning is changing behavior through the use of reinforcement after the desired action is given; a behavior that is rewarded positively is more likely to continue and a behavior that is rewarded negatively would likely stop occurring (Santrock,2014). In addition to reinforcement, Skinner also talks about punishment. Reinforcement increases the probability an action or behavior will be repeated, while punishment is intended to decrease a behavior (McLeod, 2015). When Laurie was younger, she thought she was being sent to school every day to socialize with her friends and that learning was a secondary, unintentional happenstance. In third grade, compared to the other students in her class, she was falling short in reading and math.
In the field of genetics, the study of the effect of various genes is imperative in translation and interpretation. As genetic coding influences phenotypic expression, the analysis of specific genes and any polymorphisms are relevant in a clinical setting. One such example is that of personality traits, which are believed to be influenced by specific neurotransmitters, known as catecholamines. Catecholamines are chemicals released by the adrenal glands in response to stress, and operate dually as hormones and neurotransmitters within the body. Commonly, catecholamines mediate functions within the central nervous system, including those of emotional responses and motor control. Inclusive of dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine, the secretion and metabolism of these chemicals is thought to impact upon various mental functions and behaviours.
“Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior” (Cherry). Positive reinforcement which is praising a person for doing something good verses negative reinforcement which is an unpleasant remark a punishment. B.F. Skinner did an experiment on a rat, the rat was taught to push two buttons, one to receive food and the other was a light electric shock. The rat tried both buttons and realized which button was good and which one was bad. This experiment goes to show that upon the rewards and punishment system one can learn their rights from their wrongs through a series of lessons. Kincaid and Hemingway both use operant conditioning to show human behavior under stimulus control.
In the brainstem, the most primitive part of the brain, lie clusters of serotonin neurons. The nerve fiber terminals of the serotonergic neurons extend all throughout the central nervous system from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord. This neurotransmitter is responsible for controlling fundamental physiological aspects of the body. In the central nervous system (CNS), serotonin has widespread and often profound implications, including a role in sleep, appetite, memory, learning, temperature regulation, mood, sexual behavior, cardiovascular function, muscle contraction, and endocrine regulation. Not only does this bioamine control physiological aspects of the body, but it also has an involvement in behaviors like eating, sleeping and aggression. Serotonin has been noted to produce an inhibitory effect on the nervous system that calms, soothes and generates feelings of general contentment and satiation.
Operant conditioning explains that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated than behaviors followed by negative outcomes. Punishment, which is a part of operant conditioning, is something received or taken away from an individual decreasing the likihood that a behavior would be repeated. The best example from The Lion King of a punishment is when Nala ran away from Simba after he informed her that he was not returning to Pride Rock. Simba deeply loved Nala and he hoped she would agree with the Hakuna Matata philosopy that he was using to hide from his past. But she did not and ran from Simba after an argument. The fact that his true love did not want to be with him was a punishing blow to Simba, helping him rethink his worldview and preparing him for the meeting with
Once the signal is sent, the ion balances out and becomes at rest. The electrical impulse that runs down the axon releases a chemical called acetylcholine, only one of many chemicals that transmits signals across the synapse. These substances are called neurotransmitters because they transmit data from one ...
Operant conditioning is a kind of conditioning, which examines how often a behavior will or occur depending on the effects of the behavior (King, 2016, pg. ). The words positive and negative are used to apply more significance to the words reinforcement or punishment. Positive is adding to the stimulus, while negative is removing from the stimulus (King, 2016). For instance, with positive reinforcement, there is the addition of a factor to increase the number of times that the behavior occurs (King, 2016). An example of positive reinforcement is when a child is given an allowance for completing their household chores. The positive reinforcement is the allowance which helps to increase the behavior of doing chores at home. In contrast with negative
Throughout the paper, they talked about how nicotinic receptors play a role in releasing different neurotransmitters.
Serotonin, or 5-hyrdroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter involved in many brain and body functions. It is commonly known as the substance of well-being and happiness. Serotonin is produced in specialized neurons found mostly in the Raphe nuclei located along the midline of the brainstem. The axons of these neurons form extensive serotonergic pathways that reach almost every part of the central nervous system, including the cerebellum and the spinal cord. This is why it’s not surprising that serotonin is implicated in a vast array of brain functions including sleep and wake cycle, appetite, mood regulation, memory and learning, temperature control, among others.
Neurotransmitters are substances that allow the brain cells to communicate with each other. Serotonin and norepinephrine are the two most common forms of neurotransmitters. Too little serotonin mat cause many symptoms of depression including irritability, sleep loss, and anxiety. Too little norepinephrine may be responsible for fatigue and a sense of hopelessness. A person's genetic structure, environment, and personality are all factors that affect the balance of these chemicals.
Operant conditioning is a system of learning that transpires through punishment and rewards for behaviors (Kalat, 2011). Through this, a connection linking a behavior and a consequence is made. For instance a kid could be told that she will not get recess privileges if she talks in class. This possibility of being punished leads to decrease in disruptive behaviors from her. The major components of operant condition are punishment and reinforcement (Kalat, 2011).
Central nervous system: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. (n.d.). U.S National Library of Medicine. Retrieved May 22, 2014, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002311.htm
In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning, discovered by B.F Skinner, is a learning process that involves either an increase or decrease in some behavior as a result of consequences (Amabile, 1985). Operant conditioning attempts to elicit new behavior through use of reinforcers and punishments.