• Sympathomimetics mimic the effects of the sympathetic nervous system; they help to dilate the bronchi and thus increase the rate and depth of respiration (Karch, p. 930)
• Anticholinergics are often the drug of choice when sympathomimetics are contraindicated or ineffective. This class of drugs affects the vagus nerve. They antagonize acetylcholine action & thereby help to relax bronchial smooth muscle and promote bronchodilation- often in form of rescue-inhalers (Karch, p. 934).
• Inhaled steroids inhibit the effectiveness of inflammatory cells and hence enhance oxygen exchange by opening the airways (Karch, p. 936).
• Lung surfactants reduce the surface tension of alveoli and are naturally occurring compounds in the healthy lung. Artificial
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896).
2. What are the therapeutic actions for sympathomimetics, leukotriene receptor antagonist, and mast cell stabilizers?
• Sympathomimetics are used for long-term maintenance of COPD; they aid in relief from bronchoconstriction by mimicking the effects of the sympathetic nervous system. They aid in treatment and prophylaxis of bronchospasm (Karch, p.883).
• Leukotriene receptor antagonists block specific inflammatory effects and are used prophylactically and for the treatment of chronic bronchial asthma in adults and children 6 months and older (Karch, p.893). They selectively and competitively antagonize components of Slow Reacting Substance of Anaphylaxis (SRSA), thereby reducing factors that contribute to inflammation, mucus secretion, and bronchorestriction.
• Mast cell stabilizers work at the cellular level to inhibit release of histamine and SRSA. Mast cell stabilizers are used for the treatment of chronic allergies and bronchial asthma, as well as exercise-induced asthma and allergic rhinitis (Karch, p.
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Patients should be encouraged to stop smoking or at least cut down on the number of cigarettes they smoke daily. At the same time, they should be educated that changes in smoking habits will affect the rate at which theophylline is metabolized in their body and therefore will need to be adjusted accordingly by a health care provider. Patients should also be educated on the signs and symptoms of theophylline toxicity such as palpitations, irritability, flushing, etc. and to seek medical attention right away should these symptoms present. The patient should be instructed to take the medication exactly as prescribed for maximum effectiveness. Instructions should include: take medication on an empty stomach with a full glass of (8 oz.) water; should GI upset occur and become troublesome, Theophylline may be taken with meals. The medication may not be crushed or chewed and must be taken as whole. Patients should be encouraged to limit their caffeine intake, as well as intake of any other foods or drinks containing caffeine or Xanthine derivatives, such as: Cola, chocolate & black tea. Patients receiving Theophylline therapy must submit to periodic blood testing to monitor theophylline levels as well as renal and hepatic function tests (Karch, p.
The contraction of the inspiratory muscles increases the volume of the thoracic cavity causing the pressure within the alveoli to decrease and air to flow into the alveoli. During resting inspiration, the diaphragm, the external intercostals and the parasternal intercostals contract to stimulate inspiration. During forced inspiration the scalene and the sternocleidomastoid muscles contract to further expand the thoracic cavity. The pectoralis minor muscles also play a minor role in forced inspiration. During quiet breathing, relaxation of these muscles causes the volume of the thoracic cavity to decrease, resulting in expiration. During a forced expiration, the compression of the chest cavity is increased by contraction of the internal intercostal muscles and various abdominal
R.S. has been using the recommended treatment for his condition, which inlcude inhaled short-acting Beta-2 agonist and Theophylline, a bronchodilator, to control his respiratory disease.
Racemic albuterol is a β2- adrenergic agonist that is a 50:50 mixture of two isomers, (R) albuterol and (S) albuterol. These two isomers are mirror images of each other, and rotate light in opposite directions. (R) Albuterol is an active isomer and in this combination acts an active bronchodilator. The other half of the mixture, (S) albuterol, does not actually possess any bronchodilator activity and was until recently considered an “inactive” distomer or physiologically inert. The “R” stands for rectus or right, while the “S” is for sinister or left. Racemic albuterol was synthesized for maximal airway smooth muscle dilation while minimizing the α- and β1-receptor mediated effects on the cardiovascular system.
In the article "The Effect of Theophylline and ß2 agonists on Airway Reactivity" it says that more airway responsiveness occurs in asthma, chronic bronchitis, cystic fibrosis, and other diseases. Theophylline and ß2 agonists are used commonly for maintenance therapy for symptoms associated with the increased responsiveness. Both can reduce airway responsiveness to a variety of chemical irritants.. (Ahrens 15S)
The respiratory system undeniably serves a very important function in the body. Anyone who has had any event where they couldn’t breathe normally, or maybe not at all, recognizes the importance and mental peace that comes with being able to breathe stress free.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD is a group of progressive lung diseases that block airflow and make it hard to breathe. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the most common types of COPD (Ignatavicius & Workman, 2016, p 557). Primary symptoms include coughing, mucus, chest pain, shortness of breath, and wheezing (Ignatavicius & Workman, 2016, p.557). COPD develops slowly and worsens over time if not treated during early stages. The disease has no cure, but medication and disease management can slow its progress and make one feel better (NIH, 2013)
"Steroids (Anabolic) - Drugs of Abuse and Related Topics - NIDA." National Institute on Drug
Healthy lung tissue is predominately soft, elastic connective tissue, designed to slide easily over the thorax with each breath. The lungs are covered with visceral pleura which glide fluidly over the parietal pleura of the thoracic cavity thanks to the serous secretion of pleural fluid (Marieb, 2006, p. 430). During inhalation, the lungs expand with air, similar to filling a balloon. The pliable latex of the balloon allows it to expand, just as the pliability of lungs and their components allows for expansion. During exhalation, the volume of air decrease causing a deflation, similar to letting air out of the balloon. However, unlike a balloon, the paired lungs are not filled with empty spaces; the bronchi enter the lungs and subdivide progressively smaller into bronchioles, a network of conducting passageways leading to the alveoli (Marieb, 2006, p. 433). Alveoli are small air sacs in the respiratory zone. The respiratory zone also consists of bronchioles and alveolar ducts, and is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide (Marieb, 2006, p. 433).
...a are bronchodilators like anticholinergic, beta agonists, theophylline and oxygen, which are for the advance cases of the disease. In addition, the best treatment for people whom have emphysema is for them to stop smoking.
The parasympathetic pathways are important for digesting and absorbing nutrients, slowing down and allowing a restoration process. Parasympathetic pathways work opposite sympathetic pathways, after a stressful situation they stop the release of adrenalin and allow the body to relax by reducing heart rate, slowing down breathing and contracting pupils.
Although steroids have many negative effects, they have many needed medical purposes. Androgens have many legitimate medical uses, such as the use for treatment of hypogonadal men to compensate for the lack of endogenous production. Anabolic steroids are also helpful for the treatment of certain adolescent diseases, some types of anemias, and for a relatively rare form of edema. Other clinical uses focus on the tissue building and anti-catabolic effects, such as in the treatment of burn victims, AIDS, or HIV positive patients, or patients malnourished from disease or old age (Bellino 1).
Person, A. & Mintz, M., (2006), Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory Tract, Disorders of the Respiratory Tract, pp. 11-17, New Jersey: Human Press Inc.
The clinical manifestation one may see in patients with chronic bronchitis are chronic cough, weight loss, excessive sputum, and dyspnea. Chronic cough is from the body trying to expel the excessive mucus build up to return breathing back to normal. Dyspnea is from the thickening of the bronchial walls causing constriction, thereby altering the breathing pattern. This causes the body to use other surrounding muscles to help with breathing which can be exhausting. These patients ca...
Over tens of millions of years of evolution, the human body has effectively become one of the most intricate and advanced mechanisms that mankind has ever discovered. It has developed natural abilities and functions that continue to astonish the science community everyday. One of the most awe-inspiring structures found within the human body is the autonomic nervous system, which is largely responsible for regulating physiological processes and maintaining an essential homeostasis within the body in order for it to survive. The autonomic nervous system controls all of the functions human bodies perform unconsciously, or automatically, and without its help, people would not be able to walk, eat, or even breathe.
The Autonomic nervous system has a hand in every body system from the organs, body tissue, down to the simplicity of cellular makeup. Autonomic Ganglia are structures that connects neurons in order for information to travel to and fro. These structures are responsible for not only relaying information between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system neurons, but convergence of the information into physical action. It is important for these separate systems to work properly because they rely on each other to carry out their own functions. For example, if the parasympathetic innervation within the iris of the eye was disrupted there will be great consequences to the Autonomic nervous system that assist in voluntary movements of visual focus. It is important to learn about the autonomic target organs and how each one has its own variation of chemical release and neurotransmitters that assist in them functioning properly. The autonomic nervous system is the anatomy of the body. It is he overseer of the bodies’ ability to maintain homeostasis and therefore ultimately sustaining