Spatial memory has been assessed in numerous studies to assess cognitive functions and the limitations of cognitive processing in children of various ages. Although verbal knowledge examines one’s knowledge in written tasks, visual images and spatial relations play a large role to one’s knowledge as well (Reeds, 2013). Difficulty or impairment in spatial memory would result in difficulty in specific spatial tasks, such as location of images or objects (Jiang, Capistrano, & Palm, 2014; Reeds, 2013). There are various spatial memory tasks that are used to assess the spatial knowledge of an individual. León, Cimadevilla, and Tascón (2014) conducted a study using a virtual spatial memory task to examine possible improvements in the developing child and spatial memory and gender differences in children as well. These children were asked to complete the virtual memory task, in addition to other neuropsychological tasks, which assessed their spatial working memory and attention as well. This study used a quasi within-subjects design, by placing each participant in the reference memory and working memory session. The virtual reality task increased in complexity after a couple of trials were completed.
Results suggest that there are age differences in spatial memory abilities. Children at the ages of 9 and 10 years old had significantly less errors compared with children at a younger age in the reference memory session; however, results also indicate the children at the age of 5 were able to complete a basic spatial memory task with little effort (León, Cimadevilla, & Tascón, 2014). In contrast, children at this young age in the spatial working memory session did not perform as well as the older age groups even at a basic levels. Between ...
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... however, these characteristics did not correlate with the poor performance of the autistic children on this task (Yuhong et al., 2014).
In contrast, researchers found no statistical difference in children with high-functioning autism in the tracking memory task compared with the children with healthy brain maturation, although researchers feel they would have found a difference with a cleaner test between the groups (Yuhong et al., 2014). Findings also indicate that children with high-functioning autism have a harder time with retaining information when performing a spatial working memory task (Yuhong et al., 2014). Overall, examining both developmental and gender differences in children on spatial memory has suggested that these differences do exist, and future research can utilize different spatial memory tasks in order to further expand these findings.
application to autism and autism related disorders. (pp. 15-32). Iowa City, IA: Springer Science and Business Media
Levine states that children have two ways in which they organize the information they receive from the world around them. He refers to these methods as sequential ordering and spatial ordering. He defines spatial patterns as, “assembled parts that occupy space and settle on the doorsteps of our minds all at once” (Levine, p.151). Many examples are given of when spatial ordering is prevalent, for instance, when a student draws a map or recognizes the features of a person’s face. Levine defines sequential patterns as information gaining “admission to the minds one bit at a time and in an order that’s meant not to be missed” (Levine, p.151). He says that sequential ordering is used when students try to master a science project or learn a telephone number. Neurologically, Levine states that sequential ordering is carried out on the left side of the brain and spatial ordering is carried out on the right side of the brain. He also makes references to the possibility of childr...
The hippocampus has been associated with memory formation and consolidation, through lesions studies of bilateral medial temporal lobectomy patients, such as the famously amnesic H.M. In 1971 with the discovery of place cells by O’Keefe and Dostrovsky, spatial navigation was recognised as one of the primary roles of the hippocampus, with their 1978 book ‘The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map' O’Keefe and Nadel’s hypothesis has since commanded great influence in the field.
Volker, M.A., Lopata, C., Smerbeck, A.M., Knoll, V.A., Thomeer, M.L., Toomey, J.A., and Rodgers, J.D. (2009) BASC-2 PRS profiles for students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 188-199.
In my first web paper I considered Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and questioned whether its’ symptoms and underlying neurobiology should be considered a disorder, or rather simply a difference among humans’ nervous systems. In a further exploration of the idea of individuality within a diagnostically defined disorder, I have researched autism. By definition, autistic individuals present symptoms with varying degrees of severity. It is therefore considered a spectrum disorder, meaning that its’ “symptoms and characteristics can present themselves in a wide variety of combinations, from mild to severe (1).” A diagnosis of autism can result from any combination of its defined behaviors. In addition to this, there is a host of related disorders, in which some but not all symptoms of autism are present. These include Asperger Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome, Rett Syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS) (4)(2). Because of its characteristic breadth, autism is a good example of the implications of being seen as an individual within a group possessing a defined disorder. Current professional opinion stresses the importance of accurately assessing differences in neurological deficits, even if they present similar autistic sympt...
Stephen M. Edelson, Ph.D. . Center for the Study of Autism. Web. 23 October 2011.
Involuntary memories come into consciousness without any attempt, and they happen all day long. Before taking the effort to record my own involuntary memories, I was unaware that there was a concept for them and that they happened as frequently as they do. Both internal and external aspects can cue an involuntary memory, and involuntary memories can range from extremely negative to extremely positive. My personal experience with recording involuntary memories showed a pattern between my emotional state at the time of the memory and the emotional state of the memory itself.
The mammalian brain contains several different memory systems, which can be divided into declarative and non-declarative memory systems. Declarative memory can be further divided into episodic and semantic memory, and non-declarative memory can be divided into priming, associative learning, and procedural memory.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can be also connected with intellectual ability; having trouble with mental coordination, attention, and sometimes having trouble with physical health issues such as sleep. Some children with ASD are good at visual skills, math, music, art and other subjects. Children that have mental coordination trouble can also have issues withprocessing a task that has been giving to them. When drawing a visual diagram it helps autistic children to see what is being explained and what is being asked to do. Some kids that are diagnosed with Autism can also be good at math and solving problems. ASD kids can also be good at music like, singing, playing an instrument, hearing the rhythm or feeling the vibrations that is giving from the son...
As the prevalence of Autism continues to grow rapidly, it is proven fact that Autism is the fastest-growing serious developmental disability in the United States. “On March 27, 2014, this surveillance study identified one in sixty-eight children (one in forty-two boys and one in one-hundred eighty-nine girls) as having Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).” (DSM-IV, 2000). Eight-hundred thousand people younger than eighteen years are on record as having Autism Spectrum Disorder in the United States. Most children display abnormalities within the first year of life; although most are diagnosed with Autism between the ages of two and three. Boys are nearly five times more likely than girls to have Autism. However, females with the disorder are more feasible to exhibit serious mental retardation. There are “approximately seventy-five percent of children with Autism are mentally handicapped; meaning their IQ ranges from thirty-five to fifty. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (DSM-IV, 2000) research suggests that only a small percentage of individuals with Autistic Disorder go on as adults to live and work independently.” ( DSM-IV, 2000)
Teitelbaum, P., O. Teitelbaum, J. Nye, J. Fryman, and R. Maurer. (1968, November 18). Movement analysis in infancy may be useful for early diagnosis of autism. PNAS [Online]. Available: http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/23/13982 [1999, March 7].
Millennials desire and seek a sense of belonging within their environment. This emotional connection can be described through the use of several different terms: sense of place, sense of community, placemaking and place attachment. As a cohort, these young adults wish to identify with their surroundings, and feel like a member of their community because it provides emotional safety, personal connection and encourages personal relationships.
...tumps them and studies and research is still being conducted in order to gain more insight into this quizzical case. But in order to understand the correlation between age and eidetic memory, one can look at the causes as three different theories. The first theory is the Linguistic theory, the idea that as children mature, their language skills help them perceive information. The second theory is one dealing with functionalism. The idea is that over time, the child’s brain learns to retain only significant bits of information and discard unnecessary ones. And the last theory deals with association. As one matures, one learns to associate their different senses in order to process information. In all, each theory takes credence, because one provides a thoughtful and logical explanation as to why children rely less and less on visual imagery to build their memory.
In order to understand the functional relationship between learning and memory we have to first define what both learning and memory are. Learning can be described as “the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, practice, or study, or by being taught” (Merriam-Webster, 2014). “Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present” (Sternberg, 1999). Base on this definitions one can conclude memory is essential part of our lives. Without any memory of the past, we would not be able to operate in the present or reminisce about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did a few days ago, what we have accomplished today, or what we intend to do tomorrow. Without memory our ability to learn would not exist. Learning and Memory are linked to our cognitive abilities as well as that of animals. An example that can be used to show the relationship between learning and memory is the study of how a rat behaves in a maze. As we all know rats have been used in experimental mazes since at least the early 20th century. Hundreds if not thousands of studies have looked at how rats run different types of mazes, from T-maze, to radial arm mazes, and to water mazes. These maze studies help scientist study spatial learning and memory in rats. Maze studies helped us uncover general principles about learning that can be applied to several species, including mankind. In today’s modern societies, mazes tend to be used to determine whether different treatments affect learning and memory in rats. According to Kolata al, 2005 case study the tasks that comprise the learning battery were specifically chosen so that each one placed specific sensory, motor, motivational, and info...
Jean Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development determines how children from birth to adulthood use their intelligence or cognitive development while engaging in tasks. The first stage of cognitive development is called the Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2). During this stage, children tend to learn by “trial and error”, objects exist even if they are removed from sight, and symbols are introduced (Ormrod, 2012, 149).