Public Health and Nineteenth-Century Literature "To envy nought beneath the ample sky; to mourn no evil deed, no hour misspent and, like a living violet, silently return in sweets to heaven what goodness lent, then bend beneath the chastening shower content." -Elliot The concerns and problems of the people living in nineteenth century England differed dramatically from those that eventually challenged those living in the same place during the 20th century. During the nineteenth century the English were plagued with many epidemics, but lacked the knowledge and capability to successfully treat and eliminate these diseases. London, like other British cities, had appalling sanitary conditions. These conditions were responsible for a rash of epidemics which so heightened public concern about the city's poor health conditions that in 1848 a general Board of Health was established. Among the Board's members was Edwin Chadwick. In that same year, John Simon, a London surgeon, was appointed London's Medical Officer of Health. Chadwick and Simon dominated London's public health movement from the 1840's - 1870's. Indeed, these two gentlemen were behind the 1875 Public Health Act which consolidated and expanded previous legislation on housing and sanitation, noxious trades and factory conditions. During this same time period, John Snow documented the importance of clean water to public health. Despite these efforts, however, cities like London continued to have higher mortality rates than rural areas until late Victorian times. Initially, physicians at this time were not equipped to handle the serious epidemics that were arising out of the poor health conditions of the time. They argued over the epidemics' origins, the appropri... ... middle of paper ... ...olera found? In overcrowded filthy conditions, water supplies, unwholesome food etc. He was only one of the many authors telling the stories of his time. References Dickens, Charles, Dombey and Son. First published in 1848, Reprinted in Penguin Classics in 1985. Gaskell, Elizabeth, Mary Barton. First published in 1848. Reprinted in Penguin Classics in 1985. Pelling, Margaret, Cholera, Fever, and English Medicine 1825-1865. Oxford University Press, 1978. Russell, WMS, Biology and Human Affairs: A British Social Hygiene Council Publication. "Biology and Literature in Britain, 1500-1900. . . " Pages 50-72. Smith, F.B., The People's Health 1830-1910. Published by Holmes and Meier, 1979, New York, New York. USA. Williams, Guy, The Age of Miracles, Medicine and Surgery in the Nineteenth Century. Academy Chicago Publishers, Chicago, Ill., 1987.
The Hepatitis B virus is a disease that affects the liver and results in swelling and loss of normal function in the liver. It is estimated that 350 million people are infected with Hepatitis B worldwide, with 50 million new cases diagnosed every year.(1) In the Unit...
Though some may argue that the speaker in Marvell’s poem loves his mistress, he comes across as experiencing no emotion aside from lust. The speaker merely mentions the word “love” three times, all in the first stanza. Nowhere does the speaker connect this so-called love with his girlfriend’s personality traits, but always with her physical appearance. The speaker explains that if he had all the time in the world, he would adore for “an age at least” all the parts of her body and “the last age should show your heart” (17-18). The speaker’s overemphasis of his girlfriend’s body in place of concentration on her personality and heart – one’s more important traits – ...
In the Renaissance, some aspects of medicine and doctors were still in a Dark Age. Outbreaks of disease were common, doctors were poor, medicine was primitive and many times doctors would kill a patient with a severe treatment for a minor disease! But, there were other sections where medicine and the use of medications improved greatly. This paper is written to illustrate the "light and dark" sides of medicine in the Renaissance.
There are four phases of Hepatitis B: infection, inflammation, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. In the first phase, HBV invades the liver and goes for the nucleus, where it releases contents of DNA and polymerase into the surroundings. It then maneuvers its way to the cell’s components and enzymes. The polymerase sways the liver cells to make segments of the HBV DNA from RNA. The virus makes liver cells create spare parts for other HBV viruses. Replicas are released from liver cell into the bloodstream, destroying host cell and infecting other healthy liver cells. This entire process can take a few hours to occur, but must continue multiple times for serious damage to occur. The second phase is inflammation. Inflammation is caused by lymphocytes trying to get rid of the virus, but they also release harmful chemicals that damage the cells and take part in damaging the liver. The third phase is fibrosis. Fibrosis is scar tissue caused by inflammation and chronic infection. According to Everson and Weinburg, (2002, pg. 64) “Only 5/10% of people develop chronic Hepatitis B from acute Hepa...
Wechsler, Henry, and Toben F. Nelson. "Percentage of alcohol-related motor vehicle fatalities among young adults aged 16 to 24 years, by age group: United States, 1982-2007". Graph. American Journal of Public Health 100.6 (2010): 986-992. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 22 Mar. 2011.
Wolf, David. "Cirrhosis." Medscape reference. WebMd LLC, Sep 22 2011. Web. 4 Nov 2011. .
...rmacology became a practice, and medical experimentation common. As inspired by the printing press, medical books began being written. The years after the plague made way for modern medicine.
Although populations in ancient societies suffered attacks, invasions, starvation, and persecution, there was a more efficient killer that exterminated countless people. The most dreaded killers in the ancient world were disease, infections and epidemics. In many major wars the main peril was not gunfire, nor assault, but the easily communicable diseases that rapidly wiped out whole divisions of closely quartered soldiers. Until the time of Hippocrates, in the struggle between life and death, it was, more often than not, death that prevailed when a malady was involved. In the modern world, although illness is still a concern, advances in thought and technique have led to the highest birth rates in recorded history. No longer is a fever a cause for distress; a quick trip to the store and a few days of rest is the current cure. An infection considered easily treatable today could have meant disablement, even death to an ancient Greek citizen.
Furman, Bess. A Profile of the United States Public Health Service 1798-1948. District of Columbia: National Institutes of Health, 1973. Print.
The contributions of several doctors, researchers, and scientists helped improve the health of the growing population. In 1850 the average life expectancy was 42 years. By 1910 the average life expectancy had risen to nearly 55 years. Between 1850 and 1910 there were several advances in the medical field. The introduction of genes, white blood cells, blood groups, insulin, rubber gloves, aspirin, and vitamins and the discoveries of Pasteur, Charcot, Halsted, Zirm, Lister, and Koch were the starting point of an international fight against disease.
One lesson to be learned through the sanitary era is that it is remain persistent in the desire for change in public health reform and policy. Realizing that change, particularly when it affects a great number of people, may take time, and will require a great amount of evidence before it is considered just, calls for adjusting to the affected population. In addition, we live in an age where access to most information is not difficult to obtain. In the nineteenth century, Chadwick and Snow could perform studies and suggest changes directly to those in charge with little awareness on the part of the public. Today, many public health policies that are sought to be implemented are made aware to the public, and as such, an opinion is formed soon after a change is encouraged by attempting to encourage a development in public health. In short, the sanitary era can teach present-day public health that what may be seen as an obvious source of preventable disease may not be seen that way to the general public, and keeping in mind to have patience in the attempt to develop new policies and variations in the perceived normal lifestyle of the everyday
...never truly know another’s inner nature. If Hamlet’s scenario is not convincing enough, an examination of the situations of Polonius— whose attempts to see into Hamlet’s interior based on Hamlet’s actions get him killed— and Claudius— who also falls prey to the belief that his soul is impenetrable and dies as a result of it— may be helpful. As Hamlet demonstrates, there exist certain moral principles beyond human control, and sometimes, as in Hamlet’s case, they are better left unchallenged.
One of the many wonders of a perfectly functioning and healthy human body is its immune system, which may be considered as a powerful set of tools developed for resisting any sudden invasion of microorganisms or, any foreign particle as such. The striking feature of the immune system is self-tolerance, i.e. the body recognizes its own molecules and does not mount an immune response against them. Yet, there are some instances when this defence mechanism reverses and attacks the human body itself. This process, known as autoimmunity, is highly complex and is defined by loss of self-tolerance and the presence of autoantibodies or T-lymphocytes reactive with host antigens. Autoimmunity, although present in everyone to some extent, is the cause of a broad spectrum of human illnesses, called autoimmune diseases. Multiple factors are involved and the disease progression is determined by both genetic and environmental triggers. Pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases is governed by chronic excess reactivity of B and T cells against autoantigens, evidence of lymphocytic infiltrates in target organs and associated tissue damage.
The Minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) is the most well –studies alcohol control policy in the United States (Wagenaar and Toomey, 2000). The intention of this policy is to lower alcohol use and its associated problems among the youth. Following Prohibition must states have
Dickens, Charles. A Tale of Two Cities. 1859. Reprint. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble