Mitochondria are sub-cellular organelles which are found suspended in the cytoplasm of majority of eukaryotic cells. One of their functions is to produce energy in a form (ATP) that is useful for all cells to maintain the intra and extra cellular functioning. Mitochondrion has a matrix that is surrounded by two membranes called the inner membrane and the outer membrane. These two membranes are separated by an inter membrane space. The outer membrane has proteins embedded in them (most of which are porins- proteins that allow free transfer of molecules such as nutrients, ions, proteins etc.). While the outer membrane is smooth, the inner membrane is highly convoluted into structures called cristae to increase the surface area of the membrane. [1]
Cytochrome c is an important protein belonging to the cytochrome family. It is found within the mitochondria matrix. It helps in the process of electron transport chain (ETC). [2]
Mitochondria synthesises its own protein which are released in response to various apoptotic stimuli. These proteins promote apoptosis by activating caspases and nucleases or by neutralizing cytosolic inhibitors of this process.[3]
Viruses have been long considered to be a living organism. They have their own DNA which makes it a debatable issue of whether or not to categorize them as living. They require energy to replicate/ survive within a host cell and so they take control of various organelles including mitochondria. [1]
In the case of a fatal disease like cancer, the treatment causes chemotherapy induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). Oxidative stress mediated nerve damage also the mitochondrial dysfunctions are pivotal pathogenic mechanisms contributing to CIPN. [3]
Cell Apoptosis:
Apoptosis is programmed ...
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...tible to oxidative stress due to the high concentration of phospholipids, mitochondria rich axoplasm and weak cellular antioxidant protection in them.
The physical damage to neural cells ultimately lead to oxidative stress and so mitochondrial dysfunction. Oxidative damage to peripheral neurons can cause damage to myelin sheath, mitochondrial proteins and other antioxidant enzymes.
It’s proposed by many experiments that mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to neuropathic symptoms which are produced by various chemotherapeutic agents. It is suggested that neural apoptosis maybe through the intrinsic pathway or extrinsic.
The accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria because of inefficient removal of damaged mitochondria (mitophagy) causes an increase in free radical leakiness and the cycle of oxidative damage to the bio molecules and thus helping in apoptosis. [3]
The ATP is used for many cell functions including transport work moving substances across cell membranes. It is also used for mechanical work, supplying the energy needed for muscle contraction. It supplies energy not only to heart muscle (for blood circulation) and skeletal muscle (such as for gross body movement), but also to the chromosomes and flagella to enable them to carry out their many functions. A major role of ATP is in chemical work, supplying the needed energy to synthesize the multi-thousands of types of macromolecules that the cell needs to exist. ATP is also used as an on-off switch both to control chemical reactions and to send messages.
Other times I have heard her say that she has a burning sensation or tingling like the feeling when your feet fall asleep. It can be very painful. Autoimmune can be seen in anyone with conditions such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus. Neuropathy can also been see individuals that have certain infections such as HIV, AIDs, Lyme disease, syphilis, and leprosy. Postherpetic neuralgia is one I see I working at a dermatology clinic. It occurs in patient’s that have a complication of the shingles virus. Alcoholic neuropathy is obviously seen with alcoholics. The exact reason for this type is unclear. It may be due to the alcohol’s affect on the body. Alcohol can also cause vitamin deficiencies in alcoholics. Certain genetic or inherited diseases such as Friedreich’s ataxia and Charcot Marie Tooth disease affect the nerves as well. Amyloidosis is the condition where abnormal protein fibers are found in the organs and tissues, causing damage which can lead to neuropathy. Uremia is seen with kidney failure that may cause neuropathy. Certain drugs or medications can have side effects that lead to neuropathy as well. Any trauma or injury depending on where and how severe can cause damage to the nerves. Benign or malignant tumors can also cause nerve damage to the surrounding organs. Idiopathic neuropathy is seen in people that the cause of the neuropathy is unknown. Motor neuropathy
The above events end in cell death, including depletion of ATP, changes in ionic concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium, increased lactate, acidosis, accumulation of oxygen free radicals, intracellular accumulation of water, and activation of proteolytic processes.(Deb, Sharma, & Hassan, 2010). Surrounding this is the penumbra(Rodriguez-Yanez et al., 2006)
Do you know how you are able to run long distances or lift heavy things? One of the reasons is cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is how your body breaks down the food you’ve eaten into adenosine triphosphate also known as ATP. ATP is the bodies energy its in every cell in the human body. We don’t always need cellular respiration so it is sometimes anaerobic. For example, when we are sleeping or just watching television. When you are doing activities that are intense like lifting weights or running, your cellular respiration becomes aerobic which means you are also using more ATP. Cellular respiration is important in modern science because if we did not know about it, we wouldn’t know how we are able to make ATP when we are doing simple task like that are aerobic or anaerobic.
Viruses are the simplest and tiniest of microbes, and are made up of proteins, nucleic acid, and lipids. The nucleic acids contain the genetic code that helps them grow and reproduce, but only once they find their way into a living organism. Viruses themselves are not considered living organisms because they don’t have cells, they don’t metabolize nutrients, produce and excrete wastes, and they can’t move around on their own. The remains of the nucleic acid then forms a covering, called the capsid. Once the capsid gets removed, viruses use the building materials of th...
(Marieb, 2016). Myelin is the protective coat surrounding and insulating the nerve fibers of CNS. Myelin is fatty tissue substance that if attacked by immune cells causing a short-circuits in the current so that the successive gaps are excited more and more slowly, and eventually impulse conduction ceases which resulted in various forms of symptoms (Marieb, 2016). The degradation could either be “by inflammation, stroke, immune disorder, metabolic disorders, or nutritional deficiencies” (Slomski, 2005). The target that immune cells are sensitized to attack remains
Because the body, namely the “brain, heart, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and skeletal muscle, demand a finely tuned capacity for energy and lots of it, these tissues possess more mitochondria” (parkridge). When the mitochondria are not properly functioning for these organs, cell damage can occur.
...ving things carry viruses in their cells. Even fungi and bacteria and inhabited by viruses and are occasionally destroyed by them. A virus makes copies of itself in a cell until eventually the cell gets pigged with virus and pops and the viruses spill out of the broken cell. If enough cells are destroyed, such as they do in the case of Ebola, the host dies. A virus does not "want" to kill its host. That is not in the best interest of the virus, because then the virus may also die, unless it can jump fast enough out of the dying host into a new host.
...a continuous flow of ATP. In order to support a constant flow of ATP, the mitochondria are concentrated at synapses. If these changes in the organelle functions continue in an altered state, there is a greater risk of affecting the synaptic plasticity. In addition, the “paucity of mitochondria causes the synaptic dysfunction in dendrites and axons” (2). Therefore, synaptic mitochondrial dysfunction is indicative of Alzheimer’s pathogenesis (2).
The mitochondria produces food for the cell by converting energy the cell needs. The mitochondria and the nucleus are two organelles within a cell that have many of the same similarities. Both organelles are made of two membranes. These layers isolate within the organelle all things considered, yet have protein channels that permit things to go in and out. Both contain DNA material that conveys qualities that encode for proteins. Both have qualities that make ribosomes, the machines that read the guidelines in RNA to make
There are numerous theories regarding what causes Parkinson’s disease, such as Lewy bodies; these are proteins that are abnormal and aged, accumulated together. Another theory is pointing towards oxidative stress; this is when there is a loss of ability with the Dopaminergic neurons in processing excess amounts of toxic free radicals, leading to their death. Mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation in ...
The mitochondria is an organelle which is generally an oval shape and is found inside the cytoplasm and is again apart of the eukaryotic cells. The main function of the mitochondria is to complete cellular respiration; in simple terms it acts like a digestive system to break down essential nutrients and to convert it into energy. This energy is usually found to in ATP which is a rich molecule taken from the energy stored in food. Furthermore, mitochondria stores calcium for signalling activities; such as heat, growth and death. They have two unique membranes and mitochondria isn’t found in human cells like the red blood cells yet liver and muscle cells are filled entirely with mitochondria.
Virus- An infectious agent found in virtually all life forms, including humans, animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Viruses touch us every day through water, food, physical contact, blood, animals, or even, the air you breathe. Although most are harmless, there are some that are not.... ...
From my reading I learned that cellular respiration is a multi-step metabolic reaction type process that takes place in each living organism 's cell rather it be plant or animal. It’s my understanding that there are two types of cellular respiration, one called aerobic cellular respiration which required oxygen and anaerobic cellular respiration that does not require oxygen. In the anaerobic cellular respiration process, unlike the aerobic process oxygen is not required nor is it the last electron acceptor there by producing fewer ATP molecules and releasing byproducts of alcohol or lactic acid. The anaerobic cellular respiration process starts out exactly the same as anaerobic respiration, but stops part way through due to oxygen not being
... urea cycle. So if mitochondria do not function properly, not only energy production but also cell-specific products needed for normal cell functioning will also be affected [Hardin et al. 2012]. There are three more important aspects of mitochondrial which are: (i) energy production, (ii) generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and (iii) regulation of programmed cell death, or apoptosis [Wallace, D. C. 1999].