2.1 Introduction
Mammography plays a vital role in early detection of breast cancers because it can show abnormalities in the breast up to two years before a patient or physician can feel them. The digital mammogram is analyzed with a combination of general image processing and computer vision algorithms combined with procedures which have been specially designed for the application. Mammography has provided reliable parameters for detecting breast tumor. Masses and calcifications are the most general breast deformities that may specify the occurrence of breast cancer. The other symptoms of breast cancer are architectural distortion and bilateral asymmetry, etc., Breast abnormalities are defined by an extensive range of features and may be easily overlooked or wrongly interpreted by radiologists while appraising large number of mammography images made available in screening programs. CAD and Computer Aided Diagnosis (CADX) tools are being designed to help the radiologists for providing an accurate diagnosis. CAD and CADX algorithms lend a hand in reducing the number of FPs and they help radiologists to make better decisions. This chapter gives a review of image processing algorithms that have been developed for detection of breast cancer.
Breast cancer is the top cancer in women both in the developed and the developing countries [133] and it is one of the major reasons for the increase in mortality among middle aged women especially in developed countries [58]. If it is detected and diagnosed in early stages of development, it will increase the possibility of successful treatment and chances for complete recovery of the patient. Mammography screening programs have reduced mortality rates by 30-70% [111]. In mammography images, ...
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...io lateral oblique (MLO)) of the same breast, and same view mammograms were taken at different times. Unsupervised segmentation using a single view can in turn be categorized into six classes, region-based segmentation, contour-based segmentation, clustering segmentation, pseudo-color segmentation, graph segmentation, and variant-feature transformation.
2.3.1 Breast Region Segmentation
Breast segmentation techniques set the focus of the search for abnormalities on the region of the breast excluding its background. The techniques used for segmenting are similar to those used in the regions of interest segmentation and can also be categorized with the same perspectives. As an example of approaches that can be listed under the clustering segmentation method is the novel approach proposed by Shahedi et al., [80] for breast region segmentation based on local threshold.
The breast cancer is a life-threatening disease observed among females all over the world. Detection and analysis of the disease is a significant part of data mining research. Classification as an essential data mining procedure also helps in clinical diagnosis and analysis of this disease. In our study, we proposed a novel Neuro-fuzzy classification based method. We applied our method to three benchmark data sets from the UCI machine learning repository for detection of breast cancer; they were namely Wisconsin Breast Cancer (WBC), Wisconsin Diagnostic Breast Cancer (WDBC), and Mammographic Mass (MM) data sets. Our objective was to diagnose and analyze breast cancer disease with the proposed method and, therefore compare its performance with two well-known supervised classification algorithms Multilayer Perceptron and Support Vector Machine. We evaluated the performance of these classification methods in terms of different measures like Accuracy, Kappa statistic, True-Positive Rate, False-Positive Rate, Precision, Recall, and F-Measure. The proposed method had an accuracy of 99.4 % with the WBC data set, 97.7 % with the WDBC data set, and 84.4 % with the MM data set; and in every aspect, it performed better than Multilayer Perceptron and Support Vector Machine based classification models.
Over the past decade breast cancer has become one of the most predominant diseases in the United States. Breast cancer starts out as a malignant tumor in the tissues of the breast which is formed from the uncontrolled growth of abnormal breast cells. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, but it can also appear in men. (Stephan, 2010)
Breast cancer is most commonly diagnosed in Stage I and Stage II, where the size of the tumor is less than five centimeters in diameter. In these situations, surgery is often the second treatment option after chemotherapy and radiation therapy, both of which are used to shrink the tumor to a manageable size first. If the patient chooses to, the ...
Giurescu, M., Hu, T., & Obembe, O. (2010). Role of imaging in breast cancer detection.
Retinal vessel segmentation is important for the diagnosis of numerous eye diseases and plays an important role in automatic retinal disease screening systems. Automatic segmentation of retinal vessels and characterization of morphological attributes such as width, length, tortuosity, branching pattern and angle are utilized for the diagnosis of different cardiovascular and ophthalmologic diseases. Manual segmentation of retinal blood vessels is a long and tedious task which also requires training and skill. It is commonly accepted by the medical community that automatic quantification of retinal vessels is the first step in the development of a computer-assisted diagnostic system for ophthalmic disorders. A large number of algorithms for retinal vasculature segmentation have been proposed. The algorithms can be classified as pattern recognition techniques, matched filtering, vessel tracking, mathematical morphology, multiscale approaches, and model based approaches. The first paper on retinal blood vessel segmentation appeared in 1989 by Chaudhuri et al. [21]...
...ical pathway. In Dorsal pathway, it provides visual information that detects movement of the objects while in Ventral pathway; it provides visual information about recognition of the object. The distinct properties of location (where) and shape (what) are estimates from very differently sized regions. (Majaj, M. J. & Palomares, M. & Pelli D.G.(2004)
About 12% of women in the United States will develop breast cancer in their lifetime, more than any other type of cancer (www.breastcancer.org, 2015). Many people lack the knowledge of how breast cancer is developed. Some people think they will not get cancer because they do not smoke cigarettes, but this is not the only cause of cancer developing in the breast. Anyone can get cancer. Everyone is potentially at risk for developing some form of Cancer (American Cancer Society, 2015).
Stage IIB can also be detected in three ways. If there is a tumor between two and five centimeters present with small groups of breast cancer cells sizes varying between .2 millimeters and 2 millimeters found in the lymph nodes. The second way that IIB can be found is if there is a tumor of those same dimensions found, but this time present with cancer cells that have spread to two to three axillary lymph nodes or to lymph nodes near the breastbone. The last way can be described as a tumor larger than five centimeters but has not spread to the axillary lymph nodes.
Treatment for primary, localized breast cancer commonly includes surgical interventions based on tumor type, size, and stage. Certain procedures such as a local excision or lumpectomy conserve more of a woman’s breast than others, where only the breast lump and surrounding area of tissue are removed. A mastectomy is a more radical procedure that removes the entire breast. After a mastectomy, some women choose to have breast reconstructive surgery to restore their sense of body integrity (LeMone et al., 2011). Recently, surgical techniques have improved, resulting in less radical and invasive surgeries. The increase in breast conserving surgery has been related to screening mammograms. On average, screening for breast cancer detects tumors in smaller and earlier stages, enabling patients to begin treatment before the cancer advances to more invasive stages (Watts, 2013).
Today in the United States, Breast Cancer occurs in about one in eight women which is currently the most common cancer among women. The number of cases is expected to decrease due to the advancements in technology and dedicated researchers. Scientists have put an estimated 4.8 billion dollars towards the research every year to help find a cure or a new treatment for breast cancer ("STAT Facts Breast Cancer"). Researchers have found causes, put in research and theories that help with understanding treatments, prevention and also common symptoms and coping mechanisms.
Breast Cancer is defined as “a group of solid tumor malignancies arising in the tissues of the breast” (Sarah Crawford, Richard Alder, 2013) in human and other mammals. It can happen to both men and women. For women, breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death. According to National Cancer Institute, in the United States, the 2014 estimated new cases and deaths of female from breast cancer are 232,670 and 40,000, respectively. For male, it’s 430 deaths out of 2,360 new cases. From these numbers, we can see that women in the U.S. are greatly affected by breast cancer, thus, it’s not difficult to imagine the impact on a worldwide level. Although these numbers look frightening, people can actually survive from breast cancer if it is detected early and treated properly, so it is extremely important for all of us, especially women, to have a better understanding of breast cancer.
Ways to early detect would be self-breast exams at home, annual mammograms and genetic testing for the BCRA1 and the BCRA2 abnormal gene. It has been said that when people are tested for the abnormal gene and are found to carry it, it is normally passed from either parent. Not only do women develop breast cancer, but men are also at risk. If detection is caught early enough there can be a high survival rate. Some symptoms and signs are a lump, change in size or shape of breast, nipple pain, discharge or bleeding of the nipple, change of skin color and texture, or breast becoming swollen or feels warm. It is advised to seek medical attention upon discovery of signs and symptoms. It can possibly allow a better treatment option for
“The American Cancer Society estimates that, in 2010, about 207,000 women developed invasive breast cancer; 54,010 developed non-invasive breast cancer…And yet 90% of the women who are diagnosed with breast cancer this year will probably be cured following initial treatment (Bluming 133)”. “Mammography techniques are improving too, Newer scans in development, such as molecular breast imaging and tomosynthesis (which creates a three-dimensional image of the breast) may soon improve the accuracy of breast cancer diagnosis and reduce the risk of false positive results (“Do you…”)”. So ask yourself, what would it hurt to get mammograms? They could potentially be a life saver.
Skravanek, P. (1988). The debate over mass mammography in Britain: Br Med J; 297: 1542.
The goal of segmentation is to change and simplify the representation of an image into something that is more