INTRASPECIFIC COMPETION: THE RESPONSE OF THE SUNFLOWER (genus HELIANTHUS) TO INCREASING DENSITY.
INTRODUCTION
All species, including plants, are impacted by density. Plants, of course, cannot leave their habitat as animals can, so they tend to respond in different ways to density. As populations grow more dense, they compete for resources such as food and space and are more prone to disease. Less dense populations are more susceptible to predation pressure.
It is hypothesized that as plants in small spaces compete for space, the plants compensate by reducing individual stem weight and frequency of bud formation as density increases. This would be intraspecific competition. A factor is density-dependent when it kills more of a population at higher densities and less at lower densities (Stilling 2002). The factor of competition between individual plants of the same species would be considered density dependent.
METHODS
The experiment was designed to test the hypothesis by planting an increasing number of genus Helianthus (sunflower) seeds in pots to see how they respond to increased density in limited space. Two replicates each of 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 seeds were planted in similar size pots containing an equal mix of potting soil and perlite. All plants were kept in greenhouse conditions exposed to similar light and temperatures settings and were watered at equivalent intervals. At the end of the time period each pot was evaluated for number of seeds that had germinated as well as number of stems with blooms. Stems and blooms were cut and weighed.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows averages of each replicate for each series of seeds relating to mortality rate/germination rate, budding rate, and mean plant weight (total, with buds, and without buds).
Figure 1 indicates an increasing mortality rate (positive slope) in plants as density increases; Figure 2 shows the corresponding germination rate reflecting the exact opposite trend. Mortality remains zero until 8 seeds are planted (6% mortality), then is reduced to zero at 16 seeds then increases to 14 percent (32 seeds), 32 percent (64 seeds), and more than half (57 %--128 seeds).
Figure 3 shows a dramatic decrease in bud formation of approximately 20 percent from four to eight seed plantings, followed by slight decreases of 3 percent of less in bud formation as significantly greater quantities of seeds are planted.
Figure 4 reflects a decreasing mean weight per plant as density of planted seeds increases-- from a high of 11.73 grams (2 seeds) decreasing gradually from between 3 to .
Reproduction and passing on genetic and behavioral traits to an offspring is a common fundamental to all the species on this planet. When studying forest ecology, it is crucial to study the proportion of individuals surviving at each stage of their growth as the lives and mortality experienced in a species population describes a characteristic of the species in question. In the case of American beech and sugar maple, their attempt to produce seeds is analogous to entering lottery, where every seedling has a potential chance of becoming a canopy but only some will survive and reach the canopy size; thus, becoming the fit ‘winners’. Our information shows that together, based on size class distribution, both the species display a ‘winner takes all’ pattern, which supports our hypothesis. The results showed a greater count for seedlings and short saplings than for tall saplings, sub-canopies and canopies. This is evident for a Type III survivorship curve. In Type III curve all individuals initially having a very low chance of survival. However, once the individuals pass their threshold age and survive, they live an advanced age. Only some individuals out the mast seeding production mature to become fully fit canopy trees. On the other hand, our hypothesis of canopy trees representing the bulk of the biomass was supported as the basal areas decreased going from growth stages of canopy to seedlings. This is evidence that once the individuals survive the bottleneck where there is high mortality of young individuals (seedlings), who are then considered as ‘losers’, will allow for the other larger size class individuals to flourish. Here, having considerable amount of dbh (diameter at breast height) accounts for greater surfac...
In today society, beauty in a woman seems to be the measured of her size, or the structure of her nose and lips. Plastic surgery has become a popular procedure for people, mostly for women, to fit in social class, race, or beauty. Most women are insecure about their body or face, wondering if they are perfect enough for the society to call the beautiful; this is when cosmetic surgery comes in. To fix what “needed” to be fixed. To begin with, there is no point in cutting your face or your body to add or remove something most people call ugly. “The Pitfalls of Plastic Surgery” explored the desire of human to become beyond perfection by the undergoing plastic surgery. The author, Camille Pagalia, took a look how now days how Americans are so obsessed
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Thank you Mr. Wiesenthal for letting me be able to read and respond to your book The Sunflower. The Sunflower has showed me how ruthless it was for Jewish people in the Holocaust. In your book Karl, an SS solider, tries to get your forgiveness for the wrong he has done to the Jewish population. For a person to ask for forgiveness means that they have realized that they have done wrong and want to repent for their mistakes. The big question in your book was “What would you do?” I would’ve done exactly what you did I wouldn’t have granted the solider my forgiveness because he didn’t deserve it.
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Plastic surgery’s history goes as far back as 2000 B.C. Ancient physicians in India and Egypt practiced simple forms of plastic surgery. Why was plastic surgery important? Around the first century B.C Roman physicians practiced surgical methods to alter the human body. Roman culture highly valued the shape and beauty of the human body. Roman doctors also operated on gladiators whose body and faces had been severely damaged. People in Rome were afraid of scars on their back as it was considered shameful and depicted that a man had turned his back during the war and would use plastic surgery techniques to remove the scares.
In conclusion in this paper I have contrasted the three theoretical perspectives that relate to plastic surgery. These are basic theories related to how society works. They are meant to draw attention to a particular phenomenon and make you really deeply about it. It also shows there are many ways to look at the phenomenon, because it focuses on more than one aspect.
have up to 3 or 4 buds. Exactly the same as plants in soil, they use
In the creation of our beings, we are blessed, and sometimes cursed with features we, as freethinkers, might not otherwise have chosen for ourselves. Certain circumstances however, may arise on the journey known as life, forcing us to reconstruct these features in an effort to construct normal, healthy, lives. Often, we are compelled to reconstruct these features in an effort to enhance an otherwise normal, healthy life. For the individual unaware of the pros and cons, in regards to the acquisition of cosmetic surgery and reconstructive surgery; I produce this composition in an attempt to inform you, the reader; as well as to expand upon my limited knowledge of this field.
Self-improvement is essential to the nature of mankind. Cosmetic surgery may be one of the world’s oldest remedial talents. In fact, engraved indication mentions medicinal treatment for fail injuries to more than 4,000 years ago. Physicians in ancient India were utilizing skin grafts for reconstructive work as early as 800 B.C. However, progress in cosmetic surgery, like most of medicine, moved glacially for hundreds of years. It wasn’t until the 19th and 20th centuries that the specialty forgoes ahead both scientifically and within the medical establishment in both Europe and the United States. The driving force behind most plastic surgery developments during the late 1800s and early 1900s was war, with the horrible wounds it repeatedly perpetrates on it’s soldiers. World War 1, “War to End All Wars, catapulted cosmetic surgery into a new high realm. Never before this time had physicians been required to treat so many and such extensive fa...
Since the plant’s domestication the sunflower has been one of the most important crops in production that is native to North America, comparable to maize and wheat. The sunflower, what was once a plant utilized only in the Americas is now one of the most widely and diversely recognized used plant species in the world.
Plastic surgery is a surgery focused on to repair deformation of parts of body and correction of body functional involving the skin, tissues, organs, musculoskeletal system, hand, breast and external body. The word plastic surgery derived from Greek word “Plastikos” meaning fit for molding. Damaged part of tissues, skin, organ, nerves, muscle or blood vessels of a person can affect the patient’s physical, emotional, social and economic.
Plastic surgery is identified as the process of restructuring or fixing parts of the body by the transferal of tissue. Largely, surgeons utilize plastic surgery for the treatment of damage or for cosmetic purposes. As far as history has shown us, the first plastic surgery was found to be implemented in India during the period of the Indus Valley Civilization. India also started practicing reconstructive surgery techniques by around the era of 800 BC. The Romans were also known to perform plastic surgery. Moving ahead into plastic surgery’s developmental history, in the years prior to the First World War, a vast amount of developments were beginning to change the practices of surgery in general, and facial reconstruction in particular. Before
Moreover to changes the media has cause us to make, cosmetic surgery been the gateway to our body dissatisfaction. The difference between cosmetic and plastic is for aesthetic purposes. Cosmetic surgery is to change the appearance of facial features and body dissatisfactions. Plastic surgery is to demolish any flaws that are scars, burns or areas where it dysfunction. Cosmetic surgery has been highly influenced by the media. The first plastic surgery was during the world war 1. The surgery was commonly performed on soldiers to restore their faces after the war. We adapted the cosmetic and plastic surgery as a norm activity when we don’t like our features. People are pressured to be wrinkle-free, thin and beautiful (Bawdon para. 4). Magazine
In the human society the physical is very important. More, it is based on the appearances. The cult of the beauty and the physical perfection is very attended. Women and men always try to change or cover their faces with make up or even wear oversized clothes to hide their bodies because they feel uncomfortable showing it, and due the development of medicines, it gave people the hope and the opportunity to change what they don not like about themselves. Plastic surgery has first shown up in the 20th century, and since then the use of these surgeries has been evolving and progressing. At the very beginning, plastic surgery was for people who had been disfigured, for instance during the First World War or for serious motivation cases. Nowadays,