Cognitive psychologists have long focused in identifying how people identify approach the two major types of problems: well-defined and ill-defined. For the most part, scientists have come up with theories and models to explain in general terms how people elaborate steps to come up with solutions. However, there are some problems which cannot be defined and analyzed with a single model. These special kind of problems are called insight problems and usually require a bit of contemplation and creativity beyond that of regular ill-defined problems; thus they have presented a challenge for people to evaluate and measure. In this paper I will focus in one particular insight problem called the nine-dot-problem and review some of the experiments and theories that have been proposed to describe a path to its solution. But first I think it is important to become aware of what exactly distinguishes well-defined problems and ill-defined problems from one another.
Well-defined Problems vs. Ill-defined Problems
Well-defined problems are those that have clear, defined goals and can be met in a formal and set number of steps. An example of a well-defined problem would be a math equation such as 2(x) + 4 = 10. In order to understand how to solve said problem first we ought to know the meaning of the mathematical symbols and numbers, and define the goal, which in this case is to figure out the value of “x”. We have to know that “( )”; aside from their typical use in writing, tell us to enclose and multiply whatever numbers or symbols are between them with the numbers or symbols outside of them; as well as recognize that “+” means addition or more. We must also infer that since the whole equation has to equal to 10 after being multiplied by...
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...and diminish their distance between their present state and a mental sub-goal state, and apply a criterion against which to compare their progress (MacGregor et al., 2001). If a criterion is one step closer to the sub-goal or seems promising enough to reach the solution, then it is often applied and repeated. If not, the criterion will be discarded and new operators shall be taken into consideration. MacGregor et al. (2001) also came up a model comprised of two stages, to suggest plausible operators that people apply when faced with the nine-dot problem. Stage 1 comprises the selection of “optimal moves,” such as tracing lines in strategic places to cancel out the most number of dots. However, since Stage 1 alone does not incite a person to draw outside the boundaries, Stage 2 comes into play to allow people to consider a larger working area and new strategies.
Fuzzy Trace theory functions and serves as a better model for explicating reasoning and decision making. There are five parts of “processing in reasoning and decision making: (a) stored knowledge and values; (b) mental representations of problems or situations; (c) retrieval of knowledge and values; (d) implementation of knowledge and values; and (e) developmental and individual differences in monitoring and inhibiting interference” (Reyna & Brainerd, Dual Processes in Decision Making and Developmental Neuroscience: A Fuzzy-Trace Model, 2011). Stored knowledge implies what has been stored in long-term memory through education and experience. Mental representations incorporate the ways in which people perceive problems to be faced, and these representations consist of verbatim- and gist-based representations.
JSMF explains heuristics; unconscious and fast ways of thinking that make reasoning easier. As heuristics are errors in thinking, these errors are related to poor encoding, as seen in UP. In addition, previous settings can sway how we react to information. JSMF outlines how private factors influence heuristic use more than outside factors. For example, past incidents can physically change the way the brain makes future choices (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989).
Whilst evaluating the cognitive approach to psychology there are many strengths such as that the cognitive approach takes an understanding of the influence from mental processes on one’s behaviour, focusing on an individual’s thinking patterns and their perception. This approach also relates to many known functions and operations that the human body performs such as memory and problem solving.
13. Preventing Boredom and filling “free” time: To prevent students from becoming sidetracked and bored, I know it is important to have a continuous flow of activities. To ensure this, I plan all of my lessons with extra activities for unexpected “free” time. These efforts will help ensure that class time is used wisely for furthering education. I feel that the busier I keep my students the less likely they will have time for inappropriate behavior.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999). Cognitive psychology (2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers
This week in class we read chapter two of Smart Choices, and chapters four and five of our textbook, Strategies for Creative Problem Solving. In doing so, I learned a few interesting concepts and techniques on how to understand, identify, and define a problem. Smart Choices argues that in order for us to make a well-thought-out decision, we must first know the right problem because “how you pose a problem profoundly influences the course you choose” (Hammond, Keeney, & Raiffa, 1999, p. 15). The text says you can make smart choices by doing the following:
Cases of intuition are of a great diversity, processes by which they happen typically remain mostly unknown to the thinker, as opposed to our view of rational thinking.
Keil, F. C. and Wilson, R. A. (1999) The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England: The MIT Press
The Tame problems are the ones which have a well defined problem statement and the rational approa...
In this book Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman introduces the two main characters as system one and system two, which are personifications of a model used to describe how the human brain works. In the book he takes the reader on a groundbreaking tour of the mind and explains the two systems that drive the way we think. System 1 is fast, intuitive, and emotional; System 2 is slower, more deliberative, and more logical. He uses the characters system one and two as people without names and personality so they are non-existing characters that really just have a brain that is deeply described. He engages the reader in lively conversation about how we think, the author also reveals how to trust our intuitions and how we can tap into our slow thinking. Thinking, Fast and Slow will get the reader thinking about the way they think.
A sequence of steps must be following in the decision-making process (Dunn, 2010). These include defining the problem, analyzing the problem, developing alternatives, evaluating the alternative and choosing the best, and finally taking action and following up (Dunn, 2010). According to Dunn (2010), the problem cannot be addressed until the true root of the problem has been defined. Once the source has been defined the next step is to gather
(eds.) Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press.Goldstein, E. Bruce, ed. Encyclopedia of Perception. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. “Binding Problem,” 2010.
You are tasked to make a housing loan comparison and come up with recommendations afterwards.
Mathematical Psychology is entirely different from the other methods. Numbers are used in this method. No one else has been able to learn this technique, and it has not proven to be successful in the field of Behavioral Psychology. (Magnavita, 2012e)
Brain123, Olive48, Sachinsahrawat, “How to Solve a Problem”, (Wiki How), [Online], http://www.wikihow.com/Solve-a-Problem, (accessed April 20, 2014)