Introduction
DNA computing is one of the natural computing based area on the idea that molecular biology process can be used to perform arithmetic and logic operation and encoded information in DNA strands. DNA computing primarily uses DNA analogs and RNA for computational purposes. DNA computing employs a biomolecule manipulation to solve computational problems, and exploring a natural process as computational models. The idea is to encode data in DNA strands and use tools to solve a difficult computational problems.
First DNA Computation
The first DNA computing that has ever been created was occur in 1994 by Leonard Adleman, he performed the computation using strands of DNA. Leonard Adleman implement his DNA computation to solve Hamiltonian Path Problem (HPP) using brute-force algorithm. HPP is one of problem in the study of complex network and graph theory, and it belongs to the class of problem known as NP-complete. NP- complete is one of the hardest problems which include theoretical and practical significance such as network design, scheduling and data storage. So in order to solve this problem Adleman uses few approaches using DNA computing. [1]
There are three steps that has been taken by Adleman:
1) Generate strands encoding random paths
2) Remove all strands that do not encode the HP
3) Check that the remaining strands encode a solution to the HPP
In the first step each vertex and edge was assigned as 20- base sequence of DNA. The sequence signifying edges act as splints among strands representing their end points. Each oligo were combined to from strands encoding random paths through the graph. Then Fixed amount of oligo around 50 pmol were synthesized, mixed together and then added the ligase to seal any backbone...
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... of encryption named cryptography seems unreliable since it used plain text, but DNA authentication and stenography has been proven useful in the field. DNA computing has been proven to handle difficult computation problem and it still holds a possibility to solve even more complex problem and replacing the electrical computer in the future.
Reference
[1]A.Martyn(2008). DNA Computing[Online] : http://www2.docm.mmu.ac.uk/STAFF/M.Amos/Docs/dnacomp.pdf
[2]S.M Mohd, I.Zuwairie, U.Satomi, O.Osamu, K. Marzuki(2005). DNA Computing for Complex Scheduling Problem[Online]. Available : http://www.isc.meiji.ac.jp/~onosemi/IADC/ICNCSaufee.pdf
[3]C. Guangzhao, L. Cuiling, L. Xiaoguang(2010,February). DNA computing and Its Application to Information Security Field.[Online] Available: http://csis.bits-pilani.ac.in/faculty/murali/netsec-10/seminar/refs/ramakrishna3.pdf
DNA is the blueprint of life. It stores our genetic information which is what is in charge of how our physical appearance will look like. 99.9% of human DNA is the same in every person yet the remaining .1% is what distinguishes each person (Noble Prize). This small percentage is enough to make each person different and it makes identifying people a lot easier when its necessary. DNA not only serves to test relationships between people it also helps in criminal cases. DNA testing in criminal cases has not been around for many years if fact it was not until the early 1990s when the use of DNA testing for criminal cases was approved and made available. By comparing the DNA of a suspect and that found in the crime scene a person can either be convicted of a crime or they can be exonerated. This method of testing gained more publicity in the 1984 case of Kirk Noble Bloodsworth a man who had been convicted of the rape and first degree murder of a nine year old girl in Maryland. His case was a milestone in the criminal justice system since it involved the use of new technology and it also raised the question of how many people had been wrongly incarcerated for a crime they did not commit.
In order to do this a polymer of DNA “unzips” into its two strands, a coding strand (left strand) and a template strand (right strand). Nucleotides of a molecule known as mRNA (messenger RNA) then temporarily bonds to the template strand and join together in the same way as nucleotides of DNA. Messenger RNA has a similar structure to that of DNA only it is single stranded. Like DNA, mRNA is made up of nucleotides again consisting of a phosphate, a sugar, and an organic nitrogenous base. However, unlike in DNA, the sugar in a nucleotide of mRNA is different (Ribose) and the nitrogenous base Thymine is replaced by a new base found in RNA known as Uracil (U)3b and like Thymine can only bond to its complimentary base Adenine. As a result of how it bonds to the DNA’s template strand, the mRNA strand formed is almost identical to the coding strand of DNA apart from these
Everyone is familiar with the blue print, or book, of life. Deoxyribonucleic Acid, or DNA, for short. After all, every single cell of our trillion possesses a double-membraned blob (nucleus) just to house it. As with anyone who ever studied genetics, pilgrims to the Delphic oracle in ancient Greece always discovered something profound about them when they inquired of it-but rarely that which they assumed to have learned in the first place. The Greek king Croesus once asked the oracle if he should commence a war with a neighboring kingdom only to be told “You will destroy a great empire”. He did only his own. Likewise, DNA speaks in code with the occasional satirical message. Unlike Delphi, our oracle still speaks, and louder than ever. From
Saltus, Richard. "DNA Fingerprinting: Its A Chance Of Probabilties." The Boston Globe 22 August 1994: 25.
DNA plays a significant role in criminal trials, firstly, because of its power to lead to the exoneration of innocent individuals. There are many instances in which wrongfully convicted individuals falsely confessed or made an incriminating
Presently, computers are being used to hold the vast databases of all the sequencing information for every gene of the human DNA strand. If computers were not available, the paper needed to contain all this information would stack higher than the Washington Monument, over 555 feet high. And this would only be for the data, not the analysis of that data. Imagine the nightmare of trying to find the correct gene pair, there are over 3.2 billion of them, in all that paper. But providing a database for the sequencing information of the human genome is only one way in which computers are helping in the mapping of the human genome. They also provide the computational power needed to speed the calculations for each gene as well as producing maps and the such for genetic information on each chromosome (Smith 14). In fact, Compaq Computer Corporation built specific technology enabling completion of the Human Genome.
DNA in forensic science has been around for a long time. DNA has had help in solving almost every crime committed. There have been a lot of crimes where people are raped or murdered and the person who did it runs free. Scientists can collect the littlest item they see at the scene, such as a cigarette butt or coffee cup and check it for DNA. People have spent years in jail for a crime they didn’t commit till DNA testing came into effect. People are getting out of jail after 20 years for a crime they didn’t commit, cause of the DNA testing. DNA has helped medical researchers develop vaccines for disease causing microbe. DNA has become a standard tool of forensics in many murders and rapes.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic exists in all living organisms, is self-replicating and gives a person their unique characteristics. No two people have the same matching DNA. There are many different forms of DNA that are tested for situations such as criminal. Bodily fluids, hair follicles and bone tissues are some of the most common types of DNA that is tested in crime labs today. Although the discovery of DNA dates back to 1866 when Gregor Mendel proved the inheritance of factors in pea plants, DNA testing is relatively new and have been the prime factor when solving crimes in general. In 1966, scientists discovered a genetic code that made it possible to predict characteristics by studying DNA. This lead to genetic engineering and genetic counseling. In 1980, Organ was the first to have a conviction based off DNA fingerprinting and DNA testing in forensics cases became famous in 1995 during the O.J. Simpson trial (SMC History , 2011).
DNA testing is one of forensic sciences core techniques. Everyone has there own individual DNA profile, even identical twins. DNA is in every cell of our body. In the 1980s, a British scientist named Sir Alec Jeffery's, developed DNA profiling. Our DNA can be separated from human cells found at a Crime Scene, with perspiration, blood, skin, the roots of hair, semen, mucus, and saliva. The Colin Pitchfork case was the first murder conviction established on DNA profiling evidence.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is an acclaimed extraordinary discovery that has contributed great benefits in several fields throughout the world. DNA evidence is accounted for in the majority of cases presented in the criminal justice system. It is known as our very own unique genetic fingerprint; “a chromosome molecule which carries genetic coding unique to each person with the only exception of identical twins (that is why it is also called 'DNA fingerprinting ')” (Duhaime, n.d.). DNA is found in the nuclei of cells of nearly all living things.
"Using DNA to Solve Crimes." U.S. Department of Justice: National Institute of Justice. (September 9, 2014). Web. 29 May 2015.
Every cell in every living organism contains DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is wound up around proteins to form chromosomes, and along these chromosomes are sections which code for different traits in the organism, known as genes. Thus the program of genetics is written in the language of DNA (Steitz undated). Chromosomes are comprised of thousands of genes, each having specific sequences of nucleotides which code for specific traits in the organism or functions within each cell. These features could include eye or hair colour of a human, or a specific protein or enzyme which can produce an organism’s inherited traits (Steitz undated).
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a self-replicating molecule or material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent in chromosomes. It encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. Simply put, DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce. The discovery and use of DNA has seen many changes and made great progress over many years. James Watson was a pioneer molecular biologist who is credited, along with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, with discovering the double helix structure of the DNA molecule. The three won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 for their work (Bagley, 2013). Scientist use the term “double helix” to describe DNA’s winding, two-stranded chemical structure. This shape looks much like a twisted ladder and gives the DNA the power to pass along biological instructions with great precision.
“The term -information security- means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction” (United States Code, 2008). In order to ensure the identity of who is trying to access the information, the concept of “Biometric Technology” has been developed in the last years. This essay will start explaining this concept and the characteristics of its development through the time. Then, the essay will offer a brief explanation of biometric systems operation and a description of different biometric systems developed until now. Finally, this research analyzes the current and future applications and the issues that surround it.
For example such as medicine, it can be sometime possible to reading DNA sequences and find out how some diseases occur. It can sometimes be possible to fight some infectious diseases or any form of disease by changing the DNA codons which cause most of these problems.