Alchemy
The science by aid of which the chemical philosophers of medieval times attempted to transmute the baser metals into gold or silver. There is considerable divergence of opinion as to the etymology of the word, but it would seem to be derived from the Arabic al=the, and kimya=chemistry, which in turn derives from the late Greek chemica=chemistry, from chumeia=a mingling, or cheein, 'to pour out' or 'mix', Aryan root ghu, to pour, whence the word 'gush'. Mr. A. Wallis Budge in his "Egyptian Magic", however, states that it is possible that it may be derived from the Egyptian word khemeia, that is to say 'the preparation of the black ore', or 'powder', which was regarded as the active principle in the transmutation of metals. To this name the Arabs affixed the article 'al', thus giving al-khemeia, or alchemy.
HISTORY OF ALCHEMY: From an early period the Egyptians possessed the reputation of being skillful workers in metals and, according to Greek writers, they were conversant with their transmutation, employing quicksilver in the process of separating gold and silver from the native matrix. The resulting oxide was supposed to possess marvelous powers, and it was thought that there resided within in the individualities of the various metals, that in it their various substances were incorporated. This black powder was mystically identified with the underworld form of the god Osiris, and consequently was credited with magical properties. Thus there grew up in Egypt the belief that magical powers existed in fluxes and alloys. Probably such a belief existed throughout Europe in connection with the bronze-working castes of its several races. Its was probably in the Byzantium of the fourth century, however, that alchemical science received embryonic form. There is little doubt that Egyptian tradition, filtering through Alexandrian Hellenic sources was the foundation upon which the infant science was built, and this is borne out by the circumstance that the art was attributed to Hermes Trismegistus and supposed to be contained in its entirety in his works.
The Arabs, after their conquest of Egypt in the seventh century, carried on the researches of the Alexandrian school, and through their instrumentality the art was brought to Morocco and thus in the eighth century to Spain, where it flourished exceedingly. Indeed, Spain from the ninth to the eleventh century became the repository of alchemic science, and the colleges of Seville, Cordova and Granada were the centers from which this science radiated throughout Europe.
His allegory was based in part on the prevalent belief that some people were literally “autochthonous,” born from the soil, and partly from the stories of the philosopher Hesiod who chronicled the genealogy of the gods and goddesses as well as their accomplishments and exploits. Hesiod’s account of the Golden, Silver, and Bronze races which had succeeded one another before the current to “The Republic’s” age of Iron forms the basis for the myths of the metals. Since the ancient Greeks were convinced that all myths were primarily the work of even more ancient poets who had been inspired by the
Sackett, D.L., Rosenberg, W.M.C., Muir Gray, J.A., Haynes, R.B., & Richardson, W.S. (1996). Evidence-based medicine: what it is and what it isn't.(Editorial).British Medical Journal. 313 : 71.
Early feminist studies of gender often depicted the expression of masculinity as solely meant to subordinate women. Upon further research and understanding of gender and its role in society, gender theorists have realized that masculinity is not only a patriarchal regulation against women, but that it also has negative effects against men. Masculinity has different characteristics in different cultures, but masculinity in general presents a hierarchy of traits, with femininity as the lowest, least desirable trait. In American culture, masculinity is defined within multiple structures, such as race, class, and sexuality, where a man’s masculinity can be lessened by his traits as well as these identities. Often, normative expressions of masculinity
Robert Bly explains that the ideal image of masculinity depicted by our western views is said to be the 50’s males. “These men had a clear image of what a man was, and what his responsibilities of a man were, but the isolation and one-sidedness, of his vision were dangerous.” By the sixties, males became aware of the feminism movement that the 50’s males tried so hard to ignore. With the changing times, the combined influence of feminism and the gay movement has exploded the conception and uniform of masculinity and even sexuality is no longer held to be innate. Men during these movements felt threatened by the newfound power of these individuals and sense of self. The 70’s brought upon an era of the ‘soft’ male, who were not interested in starting wars or harming the earth. Yet they remained unhappy, and lacked energy because they are providers and not procreators. Even through the chain of events in American society, the view of masculinity is still ever
Unlike the negative opinions about masculinity said that it is dangerous, violence and a threat to women, positive opinions people wanting to restore masculinity. “A professor of political science and philosophy at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada” (Newell) had written an article discuss about positive things of masculinity. According to Newell that “young men need to learn a positive version of masculinity that encourages honor, pride, and respect for women.” With him, masculinity is a positive thing for men, it is honorable and respectful, therefore young men should learn it. Sadly, throughout the years, masculinity has changes a lot which made people misunderstood the actual definition of it and mislead it to violence and misogyny (Newell). Even though everyone has their own personalities, but babies are born, raise and teach by their surroundings. Due to that reason, “Newell contends that society needs to channel certain boyish traits, such as a desire to be heroic, in positive directions and teach these boys how to become honorable men.” Babies are like a clean slate, what they see is what they are going to learn, they should see and learn masculinity in positive ways of it, not the bad ways of it. To learn masculinity in positive ways, Newell states, “to do this, we must recover a sense of what it means to be manly—honorable,
The Islamic Empire took great lengths to expand their understanding of the natural world. The Caliph sent scholars to Persia, Rome, and Greece who brought back texts that were translated to Arabic. There were court appointed patronages which allowed for mastery of secular sciences. This effort allowed for advances in abstract studies of subjects such as optics and math. Medical schools are...
Before 850 A.D, the most advanced achievements in weaponry and technology included the sword and shield. Chinese alchemists however, would change the world forever through their invention. In an early strive to find an elixir that sustained life, Chinese alchemists mixed sulfur and charcoal creating what is known as salt-pepper. When burned it was said that "smoke and flames result, so that the scientists' hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down" (Whipps). This invention was later known as gunpowder, a creation that would revolutionize and create a new world. The effects that the creation of gunpowder in 850 A.D had on the world can be shown through the advancements in weaponry, technology, and the impact on culture.
During the unification of Ancient Egypt, one will see the combination of the two meanings and names for the Ikka
When caring for patients it is fundamentally important to have a good selection of up to date evidence Based Practice clinical articles to support research strategies, this allows professionals to assemble the most resent and accurate information known which enables them to make decisions tailored to the individual’s plan of care. It is essential to have clinical expertise and have the involvement from the individual patient, they must have full engagement and incorporation in order to have the accurate evaluation.
...based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. British Medical Journal. 312:71 [online] Last accessed on 13th February 2014. [Available at:] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2349778/pdf/bmj00524-0009.pdf
Arguably one of the most important discoveries made regarding the historical and cultural study of ancient Egypt is the translation of the writing form known as hieroglyphics. This language, lost for thousands of years, formed a tantalizing challenge to a young Jean François who committed his life to its translation. Scholars such as Sylvestre de Sacy had attempted to translate the Rosetta Stone before Champollion, but after painstaking and unfruitful work, they abandoned it (Giblin 32). Champollion’s breakthrough with hieroglyphics on the Rosetta Stone opened up new possibilities to study and understand ancient Egypt like never before, and modern Egyptology was born.
The typical alchemist's laboratory in Renaissance Europe was a dark, cluttered place that stank of smoke and mysterious chemicals. Many alchemists worked at home, in order to save money and avoid outside interference. Some settled in the kitchen, to take advantage of the cooking fire. Others chose the attic or cellar, where late-night activity was less likely to be noticed by inquisitive neighbors. These small, makeshift laboratories were often filled with a grimy jumble of instruments, manuscripts, skulls, animal specimens, and assorted mystical objects.
Raine , R . 1998 . ‘ Evidence-based Policy: Rhetoric and Reality ’ , Journal of Health Service Research Policy , 3 , 4 , 251 – 3 .
Their love of knowledge spawned libraries and schools. In fact the Al-Hakem II the son and successor of Abd al-Raman I “built one of the greatest libraries in the Islamic world in Cordoba, rivaling those at Baghdad and Cairo.”15 The great love of knowledge that thrived in Al Andalus was vast and attracted scholars throughout Europe. Al-Hakem even made twenty-seven free schools that drew in even more scholars from Muslims to Christians to Jews. At a point the Maghreb historian al-Maqqari states that there are four things that made Al Andalus great and out of the four the knowledge was the greatest. 16
Masculinity only exists in coherence with femininity. If a culture does not treat men and women as carrier of polarized character types, at least in principal, is not able to have a conception of masculinity, like it is found in contemporary European/American culture. Attention has to be brought to “historical specificity and historical change,” because it “illustrates the social construction of masculinity, the multiplicity of ways in which masculinities can be enacted or lived and the existence and potential of change” (42). A good basis to start discussing what masculinity and femininity constitute out of, is by investigating what men and women do (or how they behave). If gender is cultural, then men and women are able to step into and inhabit masculinity as well as femininity “as a ‘cultural space’, one with its own sets of behaviors” (43). These behaviors include a number of culturally defined characteristics. Male competiveness, aggression, and emotional inarticulateness are said to have their own place in the economic system and stand for masculinity. Still widely accepted is the view that men and women differ fundamentally and that men as well as women have a distinct set of fixed traits that characterizes one as male or