The Cognitive Benefits of Learning by Tutoring Abstract A central question in educational theory is how students best encode material for long-term recall. We explored cognitive gains for students engaged in an actual tutoring task. Subjects (N=88) were randomly assigned to Learning conditions (Non-tutoring, Tutoring) and asked to read two passages followed by Post-test 1. Non-tutoring subjects were asked to review the passages while Tutoring subjects were asked to tutor the material to another student and then all took Post-test 2. We predicted that (i) Tutoring subjects would score higher than Non-Tutoring subjects on both general and specific material questions due to deeper encoding and (ii) Junior and Senior students would outperform Freshmen and Sophomores on the tests due to their greater [longer] academic experience. Contrary to prediction, Non-tutoring subjects near significantly (p = .053) outperformed Tutoring subjects on both tests. Because the sample of Freshmen and Sophomores was quite small, comparisons were made for upper division students: Seniors significantly outperformed Juniors. Thus while the tutoring experience may have long-term cognitive gains, perhaps preparing to tutor someone else vs. preparing oneself prior to a knowledge test causes some disruption in encoding since students traditionally study in the latter manner. Additionally, while all subjects performed significantly better on test questions tapping generalized vs. content-specific knowledge, the Non-tutoring group performed significantly higher than the Tutoring group providing further evidence for a generalized knowledge gain for students engaged in self-study. ... ... middle of paper ... ... 5 Apr. 2009. Dineen, John P., Hewitt B. Clark, and Todd R. Risley. "Peer Tutoring among Elementary Students: Educational Benefits to the Tutor." Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 10.2 (1977): 231-38. PubMed Central. Web. 11 June 2009. Moscovitch, Morris, and Fergus I.M. Craik. "Depth of Processing, Retrieval Cues, and Uniqueness of Encoding as Factors in Recall." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 15.4 (1976): 447-58. Print. Pressley, Michael, Eileen Wood, Vera E. Woloshyn, Vicki Martin, Alison King, and Deborah Menke. "Encouraging Mindful Use of Prior Knowledge: Attempting to Construct Explanatory Answers Facilitates Learning." Educational Psychologist 27.1 (1992): 91-109. Informaworld. Web. 23 Feb. 2009. Shulman, Lee S. "Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching." Educational Researcher 15.2 (1986): 4-14. JSTOR. Web. 10 June 2010.
Marsh, R. L., Cook, G. I., & Hicks, J. L. (2006). The effect of context variability on source memory. Memory & Cognition (Pre-2011), 34(8), 1578-86.
Marzano, R. J., & Brown, J. L. (2009). A handbook for the art and science of teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
...Baddeley (1966) study of encoding in the short term memory and long term memory supports the MSM model on the mode of processing such that words are processed on recall and both models share the same opinion that processing does influence recall. Finally, the MSM model of memory states that all information is stored in the long term memory, however, this interpretation contrasts with that of Baddeley (1974) who argue that we store different types of memories and it is unlikely that they occur only in the LTM store. Additionally, other theories have recognised different types of memories that we experience, therefore it is debatable that all these different memories occur only in the long-term memory as presumed by the multi-store model which states the long term memory store as with unlimited capacity, in addition it also fails to explain how we recall information.
Human memory is flexible and prone to suggestion. “Human memory, while remarkable in many ways, does not operate like a video camera” (Walker, 2013). In fact, human memory is quite the opposite of a video camera; it can be greatly influenced and even often distorted by interactions with its surroundings (Walker, 2013). Memory is separated into three different phases. The first phase is acquisition, which is when information is first entered into memory or the perception of an event (Samaha, 2011). The next phase is retention. Retention is the process of storing information during the period of time between the event and the recollection of a piece of information from that event (Samaha, 2011). The last stage is retrieval. Retrieval is recalling stored information about an event with the purpose of making an identification of a person in that event (Samaha, 2011).
John Dunlosky’s (2013) article, Strengthening the Student Toolbox, gives study strategies that may be beneficial for teachers to give to their students. Dunlosky found that the strategy, self-explanation, to be beneficial. If a student was to use self-explanation, then he or she would try to explain how new information connects with prior information, that he or she already has acquired (Dunlosky, 2013). This strategy allows a student to connect new information with prior knowledge and this connection will allow the student to remember the information better.
Homework attributes to student success. According to Harris Cooper, a comparison of homework with no homework shows that the average student in a class with homework assigned would score 23 percentile scores higher on tests of the knowledge assessed than students in classes with no homework assigned (4). Cooper’s meta analysis concluded in the early elementary grades, there wasn’t a clear-cut agreement on the benefits of homework. However, in grades 7-9, the percentile gain doubled to twelve from a percentile gain of 6 in grades 4-6. Homework had the greatest effect on high school students grades tenth through twelfth with a percentile gain of 24. The study suggest that as homework’s difficulty and amount increased,, students percentile gains increased(5). The longer it takes to complete homework, the more the benefits increase. Another positive effect of homework is that it leads to better retention of knowledge learned in the school day. This means that if a student is assigned quality homework, it will help the student remember what he or she learned during school. ”Students in the U.S spend less time studying content than other students in different countries (Marzano and Pi...
The class wide peer-tutoring program helped serve as both a tutor and a person being tutored throughout the process. There were weekly
Affluent school districts and elite private school mostly discourage the use of tutors and encourage students to struggle through the material. “Working through it builds character,” comments a science teacher when asked about their students getting tutored. “But nowadays they all want the easy A.”
Atkinson, R.C. & Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control process.
Homework efficiency and effectiveness has been a long debated topic. Many people view it as important keystone to reinforce learning, while others think it is only busy work that interferes with activities at home. One article gives an example of how homework is debated, “During the first few decades of the 20th century, educators commonly believed that homework helped create disciplined minds . . . by 1940, growing concern that homework interfered with home activities sparked a reaction against the practice of homework . . . and this trend was reversed in the 1950’s when the Soviet’s launched Sputnik lead to concern that education in the United States lacked rigor” (Costley 2). Many studies have been conducted on the subject to correlate student achievement with homework completion, with very few positive results. “Some studies show positive effects of homework under certain conditions and for certain students, some show no effects, and some suggest negative effects” (“Value of Homework, at a Glance” 1). Homework is not useful for learning because of studies in its effectiveness, studies in its relation to achievement, and the opinions of parents, teachers, and students on the subject.
Shulman, L.S. (1986) Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15 (2), p.4-14.
Our study was designed to examine the the effects of divided attention on long-term memory recall in undergraduate students. Our study will contribute to the implications of clarifying how divided attention (multitasking) has an impact on long-term memory recall and performance, and how it does this as multitasking challenges become more difficult. In this study, we expected that the best recall scores would be for words encoded in the control condition (single task), followed by words encoded in the easy dual-task condition, and finally by words encoded in the challenging dual-task condition.
Marzano, R.J. (2007). The art and science of teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Develop teaching expertise is the part of proposition from NBPTS, specifically knowing the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students (1987). One of the methods is continue to pursue their professional development by joining a professional association or organization, attending a workshop, and reading a professional journal, website, or books. These ideas enhance teachers’ cognitive growth by enlarge information of the latest strategies or method, enhance cognitive growth, and learning to help the teachers to become expert in their teaching and influence on student learning.
Senge, P., Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Dutton, J. & Kleiner, A. (2012). Schools that Learn (pp. 32-69). Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.