Benzodiazepines (BZD) represents an important class of compounds of a wide range of pharmacological effects and therapeutic uses. This project discusses the classification, mechanism of action, major pharmacological effects and adverse reactions of BZD. It also reports on the chemical synthesis and important physicochemical properties of BZD. The influence of the chemical structure’s modification of BZD upon drug's potency, physicochemical characteristics, pharmacokinetics and drug metabolism were elucidated. A problem of drug abuse of BZD either alone or in combination with other central nervous system (CNS) depressants was reviewed. Forensic analysis of BZD in biological samples for screening and confirmation of BZD abusers in forensic settings was demonstrated and the most important analytical techniques used for screening and measurement of BZD in forensic laboratory were described. In this project, selected gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography- Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) spectra of diazepam (MS lab, Prof M. Abdel-Hamid) for confirmation and quantitation of diazepam are presented. 1. Introduction: BZD are a group of chemically synthetic compounds that were firstly synthesized in late fifties. BZD share a common chemical structure features and their importance comes with relation to their effect on the CNS. BZD are known best to work by depressing the central nervous system and show an important role being used for several purposes such as, hypnotics, sedatives, antiepileptics and muscle relaxants. The emergence of benzodiazepines seemed to be very helpful due to their potent effect and low toxicity compared to barbiturates. Although being relatively safe compounds, drug depend... ... middle of paper ... ...ad/201105_import/20110509050.pdf 20. Fitzgerald, R., Rexin, D., & Herold, D. (1994). Detecting benzodiazepines: Immunoassays compared with negative chemical ionization gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. CLINICAL CHEMISTRY, 40(3), 373-380. 21. Boeck, G., samyn, N., Morris, M., & Wood, M. National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Toxicology (2002). Development of a rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of benzodiazepines in human plasma by LC-MS/MS. Manchester, UK: MICROMASS. 22. Jones, C., Wlans, F., Martinez, L., & Merritt, G. (1989). Benzodiazepines identified by capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, with specific ion screening used to detect benzophenone derivatives. Clinical Chemistry, 35(7), 1394-1398. Figure 3. Structure activity relationships of 1,4-benzodiazepines, Adapted from (6)
Antiarrhythmic agents are used to suppress abnormal rhythms of the heart. Many attempts have been made to classify antiarrhythmic agents. There is a problem from the fact that many of the antiarrhythmic agents have multiple actions, making any classification accurate. Betapace (sotalol) comes in tablets and solution for oral a...
Stahl, S. M., & Mignon, L. (2010). Antipsychotics: Treating psychosis, mania and depression (2nd ed.).
Introduction: For my research project I would like to explore the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs. Antidepressant drugs are used are used to treat major depression and other conditions, some of which include anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, chronic pain and other disorders. Around the world antidepressants are used to cure these types of mental illnesses. It is argued by both medical professionals and other people whether or not they believe that antidepressants work. According to Mayo Clinic one in ten Americans take an antidepressant. Today, antidepressants have became the most common way around the world to treat major depression
Clozapine is used on a limited basis because of the risk of agranullocytosis, where white blood cells are destroyed faster than they are produced, causing the individual to be prone to other illnesses. Two other drugs, either one typical and one atypical, or two atypical medications are used and deemed ineffective before clozapine is used due to the this serious side effect, agranullocytosis. Even thought this risk happens to be small, 1% to 2%, the drug is normally viewed in the psychiatric field as a method of last resort.(Kentridge, 1995) The most common explanation for what occurs in the brain of a schizophrenic is the dopamine hypothesis, where certain areas of the brain have excessive activity at certain dopamine receptors.(Kalat, 2004) This theory will be a reoccurring theme when explaining how clozapine interacts with the body.
Drugs are used everyday by people in many different ways for many different reasons. Drug testing has become a standard in pre-employment testing, because of the wide variety of drug use in today's society. Drugs tested for by a possible employer include Cocaine (crack), Amphetamines (crystal), Opiates (codeine, morphine, heroin), PCP (phencyclidine), and Marijuana. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry is used to test hair and urine samples of possible drug abusers or job applicants, and it is the best method for the testing of drug use. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry are two different methods for identifying chemical substances, and the two instruments have be coupled together to perform a highly complementary analytical function. The gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer have theories behind how their techniques work, and specific forensic applications for their instrumentation.
In America, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration is investigating Olanzapine pamoate following the demise of two persons following an injection of the drug.
The percentage yield gained was 70% from the Fischer Esterification reaction, which evaluates to be a good production of yield produced as the reaction is known to be reversible where conditions such as the concentration of the reactants, pressure and temperature could affect the extent of the reaction from performing. These white crystalline crystals were tested for impurity by conducting a melting point analysis and taking spectrospic data such as the IR spectra, HNMR and CNMR to confirm the identification of the product. These spectrospic methods and melting point analysis confirmed the white crystalline crystals were benzocaine.
According to the DSM5 major depressive describes a person who is in a depressed mood for most of the day, nearly everyday. The person also has a diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the time. There may be significant weight loss or gain as a result of decrease or increase of appetite, respectively. The person may also experience insomnia or hyper insomnia nearly everyday. There may also be a consistent feeling of fatigue or loss of energy. Usually in major depression, there are feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt. It is also common to have a diminished ability to think, concentrate, or experience indecisiveness. All of these symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. (DSM 5, 160-161)
Alprazolam, better known as Xanax is a benzodiazepine used panic disorders, panic attacks, and depression. It calms a person by depressing the central nervous system. Alprazolam can only be prescribed. This drug only comes as tablet form. It comes as 0.25mg, 0.5mg, 1mg, and 2mg scored. However, it can come as an injectable, but it is very rare that it would be given this way because of the reaction. If given as an injectable, it can cause damage to the circulatory system. It’s not easy for it to be dissolved that way so it will cause serious damage to the arteries. This drug is classified a schedule IV. This drug can become very addictive. It can also will become tolerant, therefore, resulting in larger dosages. Xanax tends to have a few interactions with other drug. Like most benzodiazepine, the side effects are quite similar. Alprazolam is not given to people with narrow-angle glaucoma due to the interaction with Sporanox or Niazoral. It is also not best taken with oral contraceptives. It will increase the side effects.
Zoloft was first introduced to the United States in 1980’s. Another name for Zoloft is sertraline and is in a group of antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. At first Zoloft was made to treat major depressive disorder, but as the drug progressed over time it can now treat panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Zoloft is the most commonly used antidepressant because it works extremely well, it is safe, and its side effects are not as serious as other antidepressants.
Development is a never ending cycle in life. Each person begins to develop from conception until passing away. Now, while most people think that development starts after birth that is incorrect. Development starts as soon as the baby is conceived. Everything that a woman carrying a baby does or takes place in will translate into the baby. The baby shares a blood flow with the mother. Drugs, even legal drugs, will go into the mother’s blood stream which will then go into the baby’s blood stream. The “maternal blood flows through the uterine arteries to the spaces housing the placenta, and it returns through the uterine vein to the maternal circulation” (Santrock, 2012, p. 80). This means that anything that enters into the blood stream will also affect the baby. Each type of drug is under a certain category. Psychoactive drugs are drugs that are constantly being studier. According to Santrock (2012), psychoactive drugs are drugs that act on the nervous system to alter states of consciousness, modify perception, and change moods. (p.83). They come in three categories: stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens. Stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamine and nicotine. Some people say that pregnant woman do not know what taking these into their system is doing to their baby. Stimulants are becoming more popular and there effects need to be studied and known. Each stimulant affects the baby in short-term and long-term.
In the history of mankind, the hallucinogens have probably been the most important of the narcotics. Their fantastic effects made the...
Criminological toxicology can likewise be utilized to focus medications and dosing for healing centre patients, for instance in remedial pill screening and crisis clinical toxicology; recognize wrongdoings where toxicants are utilized to toxic substance or quiet; resolution instances of driving impaired; and secure whether pills have been...
While there are many different varieties of psychoactive drugs, stimulants and narcotics are two of the most popular and dangerous. The effect of drugs on the body depends on their chemical properties, a person's mental set, the setting in which the drug is taken, and the genetic's of the user. With this wide variety of contributors, it is extremely hard to predict how a drug will affect an individual, but researchers have studies the basic effects. As a result of this research, we have discovered that stimulants rev up our central nervous system while narcotics relieve pain and induce sleep.
Forensic toxicologists have faced numerous challenges throughout the 1800’s and are still facing some of these challenges today. In Gettler’s and Norris’s time of being head of forensics in New York, they faced problems within toxicology study, and some out of toxicology. One of their main problems was metabolizing a poison and determining the lethal