Research Question: How does the concentration of lipopolysaccharides from Escherichia coli O111:B4 treated to RAW 264.7 cells affect the degree of the cells’ in vitro morphological change? Thanks to Anton van Leeuwenhoek’s microscopic observations of cells, Louis Pasteur’s swan neck duct experiments, and many other microbiologists’ dedication, we are now aware that we live in a world teeming with microorganisms. Interestingly enough, we are worlds for the microorganisms ourselves; it is estimated that an average human body hosts approximately 100 trillion microbes, the number of which dwarfs that of human cells present tenfold. While some microorganisms, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, are innocuous or even beneficial to their hosts, others, such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, can be pathogenic. Considering the staggering proportions in which microorganisms populate their hosts, the immune system—defensive mechanisms using the host’s biochemical substances to prevent infection--is essential for the latter’s survival. The innate immune system is divided into two contrasting subsystems: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system, on the one hand, occurs in all plants and animals and is activated immediately upon infection but cannot establish immunological memory; as a result, it can only provide non-specific responses against few pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that it was genetically encoded to recognize. The adaptive immune system, on the other hand, only occurs in vertebrates and requires the innate immune system to be activated but can establish immunological memory to provide highly specific responses against pathogens that it already encountered before. The innate imm... ... middle of paper ... ...phological change will be measured in the difference of average cell length and surface area compared to those of cells not exposed to LPS. Given the proinflammatory properties of TLR4 signaling pathway, it is hypothesized that both aforementioned differences will increase, suggesting a positive correlation with the concentration of LPS solution treated and the degree of morphological change in RAW 264.7 cells. By providing potentially corroborative evidence to widely studied yet insufficiently understood topic of immunology, this investigation hopes to offer greater insight into the underlying mechanisms of the innate immune system by analyzing their implications. The data from this research can also be applied to improve histological analysis of Gram-negative bacterial infection and to determine the effectiveness of future antibacterial or anti-inflammatory drugs.
Jennifer Ackerman's main focus in her article The Ultimate Social Network, is that of the functions concerning bacteria within humans. Although scientists have had presumptions about humans being proficient in governing their body’s innermost structure, they soon come to recognize the sophistication of our inner space which holds an extensive plethora of bacteria and other microorganisms that lie within each and every one of us. Moreover, scientists' new and emerging view of how the human body operates, and the cause of increasing present-day diseases (i.e. obesity and different autoimmune disorders) are uncovered by analyzing effects of certain microbe species in our bodies. By italicizing on points such as the above, in conjunction with bacteria's genetic variations, and modern computing technology, the author proves that scientists are quickly progressing with the characterization the most prevalent species of microbes, which, in her opinion, is definitely paying off.
Because B. pertussis is a gram-negative bacteria, it possesses the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However, its LPS is different from that of the other gram-negative bacteria, in that it is heterogeneous with an alternative form of the Lipid A, called Lipid X. Although not fully understood at the time, it seems that Lipid X has a greater capacity for virulence.
Most of the time nonspecific defenses keep pathogens from getting into the body. Sometimes one can break through and cause a disease. This is where the immune system comes into use.
There are two different parts of the immune system. Innate immunity is the more general type; for this reason it is also called the nonspecific res...
...standing the nature of relationship between the residing microbes inside human cells and about their function is very important to put an end to this war and to live in peace with the natural organisms that are benefitting human body and their survival has become our primary importance.
Differentiate and describe between monocytes and macrophages (Innate Immunity) and B cells defining antibodies and T cells defining cytokines (adaptive immunity).
Lymphocytes aid the body in remembering and recognizing prior offenders that may invade again. Lymphocytes a...
Seattle Education Project. (2013, November). STEP: The Immune System - An Overview, [Online]. Available: http://www.thebody.com/step/immune.html [11/12/14].
The innate immune system is given to you at birth and always has microbes ready to fight (Joanne M. Willey, 2014). This system is very fast to detect and attempt to eliminate any invading cells. It reacts by triggering Toll-like receptors (TLRs) who then fasten to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) (Joanne M. Willey, 2014). The first line of defense in the innate immune system contains the skin and mucous membranes, along with normal microbiota (Joanne M. Willey, 2014). The second line of defense of the “early-warning” system consists of natural killer cells, phagocytes, eosinophils, dendritic cells, macrophages, inflammation, fever, and antimicrobial substances (Joanne M. Willey, 2014). Although a powerful system, it cannot take
We are amazing human beings. Our bodies have been carefully constructed to protect ourselves from injury and harm. The protection of our body begins with the brilliant intervention of one small cell. According to Huether and McCance (2012), adaptive immunity is considered the third line of defense within our bodies. Adaptive immunity is summoned after the frontline or “external barriers” are compromised (Huether & McCance, 2012, p. 142). The process of inflammation arrives at the scene of invasion; next adaptive immunity is organized. Adaptive responses help our bodies fight disease at the scene. Additionally, adaptive responses maintain a unique memory to protect the body from future invasions. This paper will explore examples of the specific pathophysiology and associated alterations caused by adaptive responses.
This immunity is dependent upon our body to be exposed to a particular type of pathogen once before. After the exposure, our body’s immune system learns of a way to counteract the foreign substance. The immune system learns the most effective way to counter each antigen that enters and then retains that strategy until the same pathogen attacks on it again. It completely customizes its attack, adapts to new conditions and remembers the information. This why people are given shots of inactivated viruses. When these viruses enter the blood stream, the body thinks that they are harmful pathogens and then develops a way of counteracting to them. After battling these viruses, they remember their form of attack, so in case these same harmful viruses enter the blood stream again, they can deal with them quickly and efficiently. Lymphocytes (T and B cells are required for this immunity). The antibodies IgA are expressed in our body on the mucous surface of the gut. When foreign substances enter, the intestine, they kill those pathogens before they can even grow in the
The immune system is a highly evolved and complex defence system, armed against millions of potential pathogens that may cause infection at any point. Pattern recognition receptors, known as PRRs, are displayed by the cells of the innate immune system, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, and recognise pathogen associated molecular patterns or PAMPs. PAMPs are evolutionary conserved structural similarities found in many pathogens but not in the host’s own cells allowing the innate immune system to distinguish between self and non self and to react to the pathogens immediately (Mogensen, 2009). Antigen recognition receptors are used by the lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system to provide a highly specific and targeted response to a precise epitope of an antigen. However as a single lymphocyte carries only a single type of antigen recognition receptor that recognises one type of antigen the chance of a pathogen of finding a lymphocyte with a given specificity is low. Therefore the adaptive immune response takes time to mobilise hence the innate immune system is essential to keep the infection
Microbes are microscopic life forms, usually too small to be seen by the naked eye. Although many microbes are single-celled, there are also numerous multi-cellular organisms. The human body has 10-100 trillion microbes living on it, making it one giant super-organism. Since the first link between microbes and diseases was made, people have been advised to wash their hands. Scientists, however, have recently started to investigate more closely how the microbes that call the human body home affect our health. While some microbes cause disease, others are more beneficial, working with our bodies in many subtle ways.
Cooperation between species can frequently be described as some form of symbiosis. Symbiosis is the advantage gained by one or both parties though their interactions that take place in close proximity. Almost all species participate in a symbiotic relationship unknowingly. One of the most common forms of symbiosis is ectosymbiosis where a symbiont lives in the digestive tracks or on the surface of the host. The frequency of this relationship can be attributed to countless bacteria-host interactions that take place. Helpful bacteria can always be found in the digestive tracks of animals helping digest and process food injected by organisms. In the relationship between bacteria and humans, both the bacteria and human are beneficiaries. The human benefits by being able to digest food with the bacteria’s aid and the bacteria benefits by have a stable nutrient source from the food ingested by the person. In order for this relationship to be possible, both parties must have had to adapt to accommodate the other. In the example between bacteria and humans, the bacteria must have evolved a resistance to stomach acid to avoid being killed and humans must have evolved a immune system that will not attack specific foreign organisms such as the
Innate system critical main defense is the cellular component; there are several kinds of cells involved in the process. One of the crucial cells is the macrophage. ...